Can tree species diversity be assessed with Landsat data in a temperate forest?

The diversity of forest trees as an indicator of ecosystem health can be assessed using the spectral characteristics of plant communities through remote sensing data. The objectives of this study were to investigate alpha and beta tree diversity using Landsat data for six dates in the Gönen dam watershed of Turkey. We used richness and the Shannon and Simpson diversity indices to calculate tree alpha diversity. We also represented the relationship between beta diversity and remotely sensed data using species composition similarity and spectral distance similarity of sampling plots via quantile regression. A total of 99 sampling units, each 20 m × 20 m, were selected using geographically stratified random sampling method. Within each plot, the tree species were identified, and all of the trees with a diameter at breast height (dbh) larger than 7 cm were measured. Presence/absence and abundance data (tree species number and tree species basal area) of tree species were used to determine the relationship between richness and the Shannon and Simpson diversity indices, which were computed with ground field data, and spectral variables derived (2 × 2 pixels and 3 × 3 pixels) from Landsat 8 OLI data. The Shannon-Weiner index had the highest correlation. For all six dates, NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) was the spectral variable most strongly correlated with the Shannon index and the tree diversity variables. The Ratio of green to red (VI) was the spectral variable least correlated with the tree diversity variables and the Shannon basal area. In both beta diversity curves, the slope of the OLS regression was low, while in the upper quantile, it was approximately twice the lower quantiles. The Jaccard index is closed to one with little difference in both two beta diversity approaches. This result is due to increasing the similarity between the sampling plots when they are located close to each other. The intercept differences between two investigated beta diversity were strongly related to the development stage of a number of sampling plots in the tree species basal area method. To obtain beta diversity, the tree basal area method indicates better result than the tree species number method at representing similarity of regions which are located close together. In conclusion, NDVI is helpful for estimating the alpha diversity of trees over large areas when the vegetation is at the maximum growing season. Beta diversity could be obtained with the spectral heterogeneity of Landsat data. Future tree diversity studies using remote sensing data should select data sets when vegetation is at the maximum growing season. Also, forest tree diversity investigations can be identified by using higher-resolution remote sensing data such as ESA Sentinel 2 data which is freely available since June 2015.     

Effect of urbanization on the structure and functional traits of remnant subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests in South China

We investigated the effects of major environmental drivers associated with urbanization on species diversity and plant functional traits (PFTs) in the remnant subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests in Metropolitan Guangzhou (Guangdong, China). Twenty environmental factors including topography, light, and soil properties were used to quantify the effects of urbanization. Vegetation data and soil properties were collected from 30 400-m² plots at 6 study sites in urban and rural areas. The difference of plant species diversity and PFTs of remnant forests between urban and rural areas were analyzed. To discern the complex relationships, multivariate statistical analyses (e.g., canonical correspondence analysis and regression analysis) were employed. Pioneer species and stress-tolerant species can survive and vigorously establish their population dominance in the urban environment. The native herb diversity was lower in urban forests than in rural forests. Urban forests tend to prefer the species with Mesophanerophyte life form. In contrast, species in rural forests possessed Chamaephyte and Nanophanerophyte life forms and gravity/clonal growth dispersal mode. Soil pH and soil nutrients (K, Na, and TN) were positively related to herb diversity, while soil heavy metal concentrations (Cu) were negatively correlated with herb diversity. The herb plant species diversity declines and the species in the remnant forests usually have stress-tolerant functional traits in response to urbanization. The factors related to urbanization such as soil acidification, nutrient leaching, and heavy metal pollution were important in controlling the plant diversity in the forests along the urban–rural gradients. Urbanization affects the structure and functional traits of remnant subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests.     

Field trials to evaluate effects of continuously planted transgenic insect-resistant cottons on soil invertebrates

Impacts on soil invertebrates are an important aspect of environmental risk assessment and post-release monitoring of transgenic insect-resistant plants. The purpose of this study was to research and survey the effects of transgenic insect-resistant cottons that had been planted over 10 years on the abundance and community structure of soil invertebrates under field conditions. During 3 consecutive years (2006-2008), eight common taxa (orders) of soil invertebrates belonging to the phylum Arthropoda were investigated in two different transgenic cotton fields and one non-transgenic cotton field (control). Each year, soil samples were taken at four different growth stages of cotton (seedling, budding, boll forming and boll opening). Animals were extracted from the samples using the improved Tullgren method, counted and determined to the order level. The diversity of the soil fauna communities in the different fields was compared using the Simpson's, Shannon's diversity indices and evenness index. The results showed a significant sampling time variation in the abundance of soil invertebrates monitored in the different fields. However, no difference in soil invertebrate abundance was found between the transgenic cotton fields and the control field. Both sampling time and cotton treatment had a significant effect on the Simpson's, Shannon's diversity indices and evenness index. They were higher in the transgenic fields than the control field at the growth stages of cotton. Long-term cultivation of transgenic insect-resistant cottons had no significant effect on the abundance of soil invertebrates. Collembola, Acarina and Araneae could act as the indicators of soil invertebrate in this region to monitor the environmental impacts of transgenic plants in the future.     

The Influence of Linear Elements on Plant Species Diversity of Mediterranean Rural Landscapes: Assessment of Different Indices and Statistical Approaches

This paper mainly aims to study the linear element influence on the estimation of vascular plant species diversity in five Mediterranean landscapes modeled as land cover patch mosaics. These landscapes have several core habitats and a different set of linear elements -habitat edges or ecotones, roads or railways, rivers, streams and hedgerows on farm land- whose plant composition were examined. Secondly, it aims to check plant diversity estimation in Mediterranean landscapes using parametric and non-parametric procedures, with two indices: Species richness and Shannon index.Land cover types and landscape linear elements were identified from aerial photographs. Their spatial information was processed using GIS techniques. Field plots were selected using a stratified sampling design according to relieve and tree density of each habitat type. A 50×20 m² multi-scale sampling plot was designed for the core habitats and across the main landscape linear elements. Richness and diversity of plant species were estimated by comparing the observed field data to ICE (Incidence-based Coverage Estimator) and ACE (Abundance-based Coverage Estimator) non-parametric estimators.The species density, percentage of unique species, and alpha diversity per plot were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in linear elements than in core habitats. ICE estimate of number of species was 32% higher than of ACE estimate, which did not differ significantly from the observed values. Accumulated species richness in core habitats together with linear elements, were significantly higher than those recorded only in the core habitats in all the landscapes. Conversely, Shannon diversity index did not show significant differences.     

Assessing alpine plant vulnerability to climate change: a modeling perspective

The potential ecological impact of ongoing climate change has been much discussed. High mountain ecosystems were identified early on as potentially very sensitive areas. Scenarios of upward species movement and vegetation shift are commonly discussed in the literature. Mountains being characteristically conic in shape, impact scenarios usually assume that a smaller surface area will be available as species move up. However, as the frequency distribution of additional physiographic factors (e.g., slope angle) changes with increasing elevation (e.g., with few gentle slopes available at higher elevation), species migrating upslope may encounter increasingly unsuitable conditions. As a result, many species could suffer severe reduction of their habitat surface, which could in turn affect patterns of biodiversity. In this paper, results from static plant distribution modeling are used to derive climate change impact scenarios in a high mountain environment. Models are adjusted with presence/absence of species. Environmental predictors used are: annual mean air temperature, slope, indices of topographic position, geology, rock cover, modeled permafrost and several indices of solar radiation and snow cover duration. Potential Habitat Distribution maps were drawn for 62 higher plant species, from which three separate climate change impact scenarios were derived. These scenarios show a great range of response, depending on the species and the degree of warming. Alpine species would be at greatest risk of local extinction, whereas species with a large elevation range would run the lowest risk. Limitations of the models and scenarios are further discussed. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Spatiotemporal variation of macroinvertebrates in relation to canopy cover and other environmental factors in Eriora River, Niger Delta, Nigeria

Canopy cover is well known to influence the distribution of macroinvertebrates in temperate streams. Very little is known about how this factor influences stream communities in Afrotropical streams. The effects and possible interactions of environmental factors and canopy cover on macroinvertebrate community structure (abundance, richness, and diversity) were examined in four stations in Eriora River, southern Nigeria bimonthly from May to November 2010. The river supported diverse macroinvertebrates in which the upstream sampling stations with dense canopy cover were dominated by Decapoda, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Gastropoda, Trichoptera, and Coleoptera while Diptera and Coleoptera were the benthic organisms found predominant at downstream stations with less canopy cover. Some caddisfly species such as Agapetus agilis, Trichosetodes species and the stonefly Neoperla species were present upstream and were found to be potential bioindicators for a clean ecosystem. The blood worm Chironomus species and Tabanus sp. were abundant at the downstream of the river and are considered potential bioindicators for an organically degrading ecosystem. Some environmental factors varied temporally with significantly higher macroinvertebrate abundance and richness in May. We found out that canopy cover and environmental factors affected macroinvertebrates abundance, diversity, and richness and that the individual taxon had varying responses to these factors. These results help identify the mechanisms underlying the effects of canopy cover and other environmental factors on Afrotropical stream invertebrate communities.     

The effects of grassland degradation on plant diversity,primary productivity,and soil fertility in the alpine region of Asia’s headwaters

A 3-year survey was conducted to explore the relationships among plant composition, productivity, and soil fertility characterizing four different degradation stages of an alpine meadow in the source region of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, China. Results showed that plant species diversity, productivity, and soil fertility of the top 30-cm soil layer significantly declined with degradation stages of alpine meadow over the study period. The productivity of forbs significantly increased with degradation stages, and the soil potassium stock was not affected by grassland degradation. The vegetation composition gradually shifted from perennial graminoids (grasses and sedges) to annual forbs along the degradation gradient. The abrupt change of response in plant diversity, plant productivity, and soil nutrients was demonstrated after heavy grassland degradation. Moreover, degradation can indicate plant species diversity and productivity through changing soil fertility. However, the clear relationships are difficult to establish. In conclusion, degradation influenced ecosystem function and services, such as plant species diversity, productivity, and soil carbon and nitrogen stocks. Additionally, both plant species diversity and soil nutrients were important predictors in different degradation stages of alpine meadows. To this end, heavy degradation grade was shown to cause shift of plant community in alpine meadow, which provided an important basis for sustaining ecosystem function, manipulating the vegetation composition of the area and restoring the degraded alpine grassland.     

Estimation of Plant Diversity at Landscape Level: A Methodological Approach Applied to Three Spanish Rural Areas

Approaches linking biodiversity assessment with landscape structure are necessary in the framework of sustainable rural development. The present paper describes a methodology to estimate plant diversity involving landscape structure as a proportional weight associated with different plant communities found in the landscape mosaic. The area occupied by a plant community, its patch number or its spatial distribution of patches are variables that could be expressed in gamma plant diversity of a territory. The methodology applies (1) remote sensing information, to identify land cover and land use types; (2) aspect, to discriminate composition of plant communities in each land cover type; (3) multi-scale field techniques, to asses plant diversity; (4) affinity analysis of plant community composition, to validate the stratified random sampling design and (5) the additive model that partitions gamma diversity into its alpha and beta components. The method was applied to three Spanish rural areas and was able to record 150-260 species per ha. Species richness, Shannon information index and Simpson concentration index were used to measure diversity in each area. The estimation using Shannon diversity index and the product of patch number and patch interspersion as weighting of plant community diversity was found to be the most appropriate method of measuring plant diversity at the landscape level.     

Landtype-forest community relationships: A case study on the Mid-Cumberland Plateau

Relationships between forest communities and landtypes (the most detailed level of a hierarchical land classification system) were determined for the Prentice Cooper State Forest (PCSF), located on the southern tip of Walden Ridge, west of Chattanooga, Tennessee.Four extensive landtypes within the Mullins Cove area of PCSF were sampled: 1) broad sandstone ridges-south aspect (LT-3), 2) north sandstone slopes (LT-5), 3) south sandstone slopes (LT-6), and 4) plateau escarpment and upper sandstone slopes and benches-south aspect (LT-17). Rectangular, 0.04-hectare plots specified sub-plots for sampling overstory, midstory, sapling/shrub, seedling/herb forest strata, and physical site characteristics. Plots (139) were allocated by landtype using a random start with subsequent systematic location.Multivariate statistical techniques were used to 1) examine the distinctness of forest communities occurring among landtypes (discriminant analysis), 2) describe the forest communities occurring within landtypes (cluster analysis), and 3) determine factors controlling the spatial distribution of forest communities on the landscape (factor analysis).Different relative importance values of species among communities along with different community combinations among landtypes resulted in distinct forest vegetation among landtypes.Chestnut oak (Quercus prinus L.), white oak (Quercus alba L.), and shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Miller) communities occurred on all four landtypes. Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinia Muenchh.) communities occurred on LT-5, LT-6, and LT-17. Black oak (Quercus velutina Lam.) communities occurred on LT-3 and LT-5. Yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.), and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.), communities occurred only on LT-17.Landscape scale factors that varied along an elevation gradient were dominant in controlling spatial distribution of forest communities. Microsite factors were secondary controllers. Specific ecological factors could not be determined by factor analysis.Relatively distinct vegetation occurs among sampled landtypes on the PCSF. This study provides additional evidence that the land classification system divides the Mid-Cumberland Plateau landscape into distinct ecological units.     

淮河流域河南段水生植物多样性评价及其影响因素分析

通过对淮河流域河南段开展野外调查及室内监测,分析河流水生植物类群组成及优势物种,从多样性、丰富度、优势度、均匀度4个方面对水生植物进行健康评价,采用CCA分析法探讨影响水生植物的关键环境因素。结果表明,淮河流域河南段共有水生植物38种,隶属于25科33属,分布广泛的优势种为芦苇、水花生、金鱼藻、轮叶黑藻、水蓼、水鳖、篦齿眼子菜。针对健康评价结果,淮河流域河南段水生植物呈现病态到健康状态。分析表明河流生态系统遭受破坏,生态系统呈现不稳定状况,主要原因为水质污染及人为活动干扰强烈。根据水生植物分布与水环境因子CCA响应关系研究,影响水生植物的主要因子为TP、COD、p H、电导率、氨氮。     

An assessment of the relationship between potential chemical indices of nitrogen saturation and nitrogen deposition in hardwood forests in southern Ontario

Southern Ontario receives the highest levels of atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition in Canada and there are concerns that forests in the region may be approaching a state of ‘N saturation’. In order to evaluate whether potential chemical indices provide evidence of N saturation, 23 hardwood plots were sampled along a modeled N-deposition gradient ranging from 9.3 to 12.8 kg/ha/year. All plots were dominated by sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) and foliar N and foliar δ¹⁵N were positively correlated with modeled N deposition. However, forest floor N content and the C:N ratio were unrelated to N deposition, but were instead related to soil pH and annual temperature; lower C:N ratios and higher N content in the forest floor were found at the most acidic sites in the cooler, northern part of the study region despite lower N deposition. Likewise, δ¹⁵N values in surface mineral soil and the ¹⁵N enrichment factor of foliage (δ¹⁵N foliage ? δ¹⁵N soil) are correlated to soil pH and temperature and not N deposition. Further, potential N mineralization, ammonification, and nitrification in Ontario maple stands were highest in the northern part of the region with the lowest modeled N deposition. Nitrogen cycling in soil appears to be primarily influenced by the N status of the forest floor and other soil properties rather than N deposition, indicating that chemical indices in soil in these hardwood plots may not provide an early indicator of N saturation.     

Landscape ecosystem classification in the Cherokee National Forest,east Tennessee,U.S.A.

A landscape ecosystem classification is described for the 43 800 ha Foothills section (elevation 305 to 610 m) of the southern unit of the Cherokee National Forest. Vegetative cover, landform, and soils data were obtained from sixty 0.04 ha plots located in stands representing late successional stages. Vegetation data were grouped by dominant cover type utilizing agglomerative, hierarchical clustering and detrended correspondence analysis. Detrended canonical correspondence analysis (DCCA) and stepwise discriminant analysis (SDA) were used to identify patterns in species composition explained by environmental variables.Four community types were identified: (1) Tsuga canadensis-Acer saccharum-Fagus grandifolia-Fraxinus americana, (2) Tsuga canadensis-Rhododendron maximum, (3) Quercus prinus, and (4) Quercus prinus-Quercus coccinea-Acer rubrum. A recently developed Landform Index that quantifies slope type and degree of protection by adjacent land masses was identified through DCCA and SDA as the most important predictor of community types. The strength of the correlations between elevation and several soil thickness variables with DCCA axis 1 indicated that vegetation varies along an interpreted moisture gradient. No ecological meaning was attributed to the second axis.     

Quantifying the consequences of conifer succession in aspen stands: decline in a biodiversity-supporting community

Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michaux) stands are important for biodiversity in conifer-dominated forest landscapes. Our goal was to quantify the consequences of conifer succession on understory diversity and litter quality, as well as associated changes in aspen stand condition. We studied aspen stands on national park land in the transition zone between the northern Sierra Nevada and southern Cascade mountain ranges. We field-measured ten metrics of aspen stand condition in 29 aspen stands. Along a gradient of increasing current conifer cover, we observed decreases in herbaceous species diversity and richness and an increase in forest floor O horizon depth. We interpreted aerial photos from 1952 and 1998 to determine whether directional changes in conifer cover had occurred in the stands over the past half century, and used regression modeling to associate succession with the observed range of aspen stand condition. From the period 1952 to 1998, we found that conifer encroachment occurred in half the sampled stands, with an average increase in conifer cover of 1 % a year. Aspen were persistent in the remaining stands. Stand cover dynamics and percent total canopy cover interacted to influence species richness, diversity, aspen sprouting, and litter quality. In stands with conifer encroachment, both understory species richness and diversity declined. Although aspen sprouting increased, aspen establishment declined and the relative mass of woody to fine soil litter increased.     

Spatial pattern and heterogeneity of soil organic carbon and nitrogen in sand dunes related to vegetation change and geomorphic position in Horqin Sandy Land, Northern China

To assesses the effect of geomorphology, topography, and vegetation changes on spatial pattern of soil organic carbon (C) and total nitrogen (N) in sand dunes, we used the quantitative methods to examine the spatial heterogeneity of vegetation cover, soil organic C, and total N in an 11-year naturally restored mobile dune (RMD11) and a 20-year naturally restored mobile dune (RMD20) that had been fenced to exclude grazing in Horqin Sandy Land, northern China. Our results showed that the vegetation cover, plant density, species number and diversity, soil organic C, and total N increased from RMD11 to RMD20 and increased from the 50 × 50-m plot (crest) to the 100 × 100-m plot (slope) in each dune. Geostatistical analysis showed that the spatial structural variance accounted for the largest proportion of the total sample variance in vegetation cover, soil organic C, and total N in each dune plot. Calculated spatial autocorrelation ranges of vegetation cover, soil organic C, and total N increased from RMD11 to RMD20, indicating that longer time since vegetation restoration results in a more homogeneous distribution of vegetation cover, soil organic C, and total N in sand dunes. In addition, the spatial continuity of vegetation cover, soil organic C, and total N decreased from the 50 × 50-m plot (crest) to the 100 × 100-m plot (slope) in each dune. These results suggest that the spatial distribution of soil organic C and total N in sand dunes is associated closely with geomorphic position related to the dune crest and slope, relative elevation of sampling site, and vegetation cover. Understanding the principles of this relationship between them may guide strategies for the conservation and management of semiarid dune ecosystems.     

Vegetation, Soil, and Animal Indicators of Rangeland Health

We studied indicators of rangeland health on benchmark sites with long, well documented records of protection from stress by domestic livestock or histories of environmental stress and vegetation change. We measured ecosystem properties (metrics) that were clearly linked to ecosystem processes. We focused on conservation of soil and water as key processes in healthy ecosystems, and on maintenance of biodiversity and productivity as important functions of healthy ecosystems. Measurements from which indicators of rangeland health were derived included: sizes of unvegetated patches, cover and species composition of perennial grasses, cover and species composition of shrubs and herbaceous perennials, soil slaking, and abundance and species composition of the bird fauna. Indicators that provided an interpretable range of values over the gradient from irreversibly degraded sites to healthy sites included: bare patch index, cover of long-lived grasses, palatability index, and weighted soil surface stability index. Indicators for which values above a threshold may serve as an indicator of rangeland health include: cover of plant species toxic to livestock, cover of exotic species, and cover of increaser species. Several other indicator metrics were judged not sensitive nor interpretable. Examples of application of rangeland health indicators to evaluate the success of various restoration efforts supported the contention that a suite of indicators are required to assess rangeland health. Bird species diversity and ant species diversity were not related to the status of the sample site and were judged inadequate as indicators of maintenance of biodiversity.     

Negative effect of litter of invasive weed Lantana camara on structure and composition of vegetation in the lower Siwalik Hills,northern India

Lantana camara, an aromatic shrub, native to tropical America, was introduced into India for ornamental hedging, but later escaped and became a serious invasive weed. This study assessed the quantitative and qualitative status of plant community richness and diversity in areas invaded by L. camara in the Siwalik Hills (Himachal Pradesh, India), and explored allelopathy as a possible mechanism of interference. We measured species diversity, richness and evenness of the vegetation in areas invaded and uninvaded by L. camara. Allelopathic effects of L. camara rhizosphere soil and litter were assessed against two native plants—Achyranthes aspera (a herb) and Albizia lebbeck (a tree). Density, biomass and indices of diversity, richness and evenness were reduced by L. camara, indicating a significant alteration in composition and structure of native communities. Seedling growth of the test species was reduced in L. camara rhizosphere- and litter-amended soil. The inhibitory effect was ameliorated by the addition of activated charcoal, indicating the presence of organic inhibitors (quantified as phenolics) in the soil. Lantana invasion greatly reduces the density and diversity of the vegetation in the invaded area, and chemical interference of its litter plays an important role in invasion.     

Comparing the natural variation of oribatid mite communities with their changes associated with anthropogenic disturbance

Several organism communities serve as ecological and environmental indicators to detect changes in human-impacted habitats. However, the composition of indicator communities may vary because of natural variation in addition to the changes associated with human disturbances. This meta-analysis compared the natural variation of oribatid mite assemblages, a good indicator model group in soil ecosystems, with their deviations associated with disturbance using diversity and dissimilarity indices and three human disturbance types. Literature data were collected about oribatid mite assemblages from natural and disturbed habitats. Human disturbances consisted of agriculture, heavy metal pollution and forest management. Biodiversity indices (Shannon and Berger-Parker) and dissimilarity indices (Jaccard and Bray-Curtis) were calculated among natural habitats and between disturbed and control habitats at the species and genus level. We considered oribatid mite assemblages as effective community-level indicators when the methods separated the differences of assemblages between disturbed and control habitats from their varieties among natural habitats. In addition, the study analysed the correlation between these indices and environmental variables of the study sites. Oribatid mite assemblages performed high indication strength with Bray-Curtis index for agricultural disturbances since dissimilarity values between disturbed and control habitats were as high as between different natural habitats and higher than among the same types of natural habitats. Genus-level values showed similar results to the species level. This approach may be useful to test the effectiveness of other indicator groups and methods.     

Ecological risk assessment of open coal mine area

The coal mine areas in China have the serious conflicts between resources exploitation and ecology safety, therefore the coal mine ecological risk assessment is an important problem which relates to the sustainability of coal mines to regions and the whole country. In this study, open coal mine area serves as researching object, heavy metals, soil erosion and coast are screened out as risk resources, soil wireworm as the receiver of heavy metals risk, biotope ecosystem as the receiver of soil erosion and coast risk; ecological indexes are calculated with species background index, biological diversity index and natural degree index, ecological friability indexes are calculated with soil fertility index, plant coverage, plant species diversity index, soil wireworm index and maturity index, and the typical coal mine area assessment indexes system is established. In addition, the regional ecological risk assessment is conducted on the friable ecological system of Fuxin Haizhou open coal mine area. Examples are researched of Haizhou open coal mine, the coal mine risk distribution is established, and foundations are provided for the administrative decision-making.     

Vegetation as an indicator of environmental changes

Composition of the vegetation and the properties of its environment are related, as was shown by research. In these, mostly statistical-correlative studies, both the vegetation and some growth factors, such as plant nutrients and moisture supply were analyzed and studied on interdependence. At present the environmental conditions can be estimated in the field from the floristic composition with regard to differences both in the combination of plant species and in their relative biomass production. With a vegetation survey the spatial pattern of the different environmental conditions can be indicated. For instance, the places where moisture supply gradients occur can be detected, also a better understanding is obtained of the environmental equalization and the decreasing number of plant species and spatial diversity. Conclusions can be drawn about changes in the vegetation to be expected, from the combined occurrence of, a terrestrial vegetation indicating an eutrofied environment and a water vegetation indicating a relatively oligotrophic environment. By comparing vegetation recordings of the past and present, environmental changes that have occurred in the same place can be indicated. By vegetations situated in different places in relation with soil profile properties the consequences of environmental changes can be predicted. For instance, lowering of the ground water table and intensifying the agricultural use. On the other hand, measures can be suggested to increase the biological value of land and water, for instance, indication of seepage areas and floristically rich areas in the field.