A Comparison of Richness Hotspots, Rarity Hotspots, and Complementary Areas for Conserving Diversity of British Birds

Biodiversity conservation requires efficient methods for choosing priority areas for in situ conservation management. We compared three quantitative methods for choosing 5% (an arbitrary figure) of all the 10 × 10 km grid cells in Britain to represent the diversity of breeding birds: (1) hotspots of richness, which selects the areas richest in species; (2) hotspots of range-size rarity (narrow endemism), which selects areas richest in those species with the most restricted ranges; and (3) sets of complementary areas, which selects areas with the greatest combined species richness. Our results show that richness hotspots contained the highest number of species-in-grid-cell records (with many representations of the more widespread species), whereas the method of complementary areas obtained the lowest number. However, whereas richness hotspots included representation of 89% of British species of breeding birds, and rarity hotspots included 98%, the areas chosen using complementarity represented all the species, where possible, at least six times over. The method of complementary areas was also well suited to supplementing the existing conservation network. For example, starting with grid cells with over 50% area cover by existing "Sites of Special Scientific Interest," we searched for a set of areas that could complete the representation of all the most threatened birds in Britain, the Red Data species. The method of complementary areas distinguishes between irreplaceable and flexible areas, which helps planners by providing alternatives for negotiation. This method can also show which particular species justify the choice of each area. Yet the complementary areas method will not be fully able to select the best areas for conservation management until we achieve integration of some of the more important factors affecting viability, threat, and cost.     

Warfare in Biodiversity Hotspots

Abstract:  Conservation efforts are only as sustainable as the social and political context within which they take place. The weakening or collapse of sociopolitical frameworks during wartime can lead to habitat destruction and the erosion of conservation policies, but in some cases, may also confer ecological benefits through altered settlement patterns and reduced resource exploitation. Over 90% of the major armed conflicts between 1950 and 2000 occurred within countries containing biodiversity hotspots, and more than 80% took place directly within hotspot areas. Less than one-third of the 34 recognized hotspots escaped significant conflict during this period, and most suffered repeated episodes of violence. This pattern was remarkably consistent over these 5 decades. Evidence from the war-torn Eastern Afromontane hotspot suggests that biodiversity conservation is improved when international nongovernmental organizations support local protected area staff and remain engaged throughout the conflict. With biodiversity hotspots concentrated in politically volatile regions, the conservation community must maintain continuous involvement during periods of war, and biodiversity conservation should be incorporated into military, reconstruction, and humanitarian programs in the world's conflict zones.     

Population Growth, Human Development, and Deforestation in Biodiversity Hotspots

Abstract:  Human population and development activities affect the rate of deforestation in biodiversity hotspots. We quantified the effect of human population growth and development on rates of deforestation and analyzed the relationship between these causal factors in the 1980s and 1990s. We compared the averages of population growth, human development index (HDI, which measures income, health, and education), and deforestation rate and computed correlations among these variables for countries that contain biodiversity hotspots. When population growth was high and HDI was low there was a high rate of deforestation, but when HDI was high, rate of deforestation was low, despite high population growth. The correlation among variables was significant for the 1990s but not for the 1980s. The relationship between population growth and HDI had a regional pattern that reflected the historical process of development. Based on the changes in HDI and deforestation rate over time, we identified two drivers of deforestation: policy choice and human-development constraints. Policy choices that disregard conservation may cause the loss of forests even in countries that are relatively developed. Lack of development in other countries, on the other hand, may increase the pressure on forests to meet the basic needs of the human population. Deforestation resulting from policy choices may be easier to fix than deforestation arising from human development constraints. To prevent deforestation in the countries that have such constraints, transfer of material and intellectual resources from developed countries may be needed. Popular interest in sustainable development in developed countries can facilitate the transfer of these resources.     

Not Knowing, Not Recording, Not Listing: Numerous Unnoticed Mollusk Extinctions

Abstract:  Mollusks are the group most affected by extinction according to the 2007 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List, despite the group having not been evaluated since 2000 and the quality of information for invertebrates being far lower than for vertebrates. Altogether 302 species and 11 subspecies are listed as extinct on the IUCN Red List. We reevaluated mollusk species listed as extinct through bibliographic research and consultation with experts. We found that the number of known mollusk extinctions is almost double that of the IUCN Red List. Marine habitats seem to have experienced few extinctions, which suggests that marine species may be less extinction prone than terrestrial and freshwater species. Some geographic and ecologic biases appeared. For instance, the majority of extinctions in freshwater occurred in the United States. More than 70% of known mollusk extinctions took place on oceanic islands, and a one-third of these extinctions may have been caused precipitously by introduction of the predatory snail Euglandina rosea. We suggest that assessment of the conservation status of invertebrate species is neglected in the IUCN Red List and not managed in the same way as for vertebrate species .     

丛枝菌根-植物修复重金属污染土壤研究中的热点

随着菌根研究和植物修复技术的发展,利用丛枝菌根强化重金属污染土壤的植物修复逐渐受到人们的重视。本文系统综述了当前的几个研究热点:(1)菌根植物吸收和转运重金属的分子机制;(2)AM真菌对超富集植物重金属吸收的影响及其机制;(3)AM真菌对转基因植物重金属吸收的影响及其机制;(4)AM真菌与其他土壤生物在植物修复中的复合作用;(5)丛枝菌根与化学螯合剂在植物修复中的复合作用;(6)重金属复合污染土壤的丛枝菌根-植物修复;(7)放射性污染土壤的枝菌根-植物修复;(8)丛枝菌根-植物修复的田间试验研究。在未来的丛枝菌根-植物修复研究中,要筛选优良的宿主植物和与之高效共生的AM真菌,加强相关理论和应用基础研究,并构建高效基因工程菌。     

Hotspots of Epiphytic Lichen Diversity in Two Young Managed Forests

Understanding within-stand variation in diversity of epiphytes will provide an improved basis for producing timber while conserving biological diversity. Two 80-ha, 50–year–old managed stands of conifers were surveyed to locate 0.4 ha putative "diversity" plots, the areas appearing most diverse in lichen epiphytes. These plots were generally located in areas made heterogeneous by canopy gaps, wolf trees (trees with large-diameter lower branches), and old-growth remnant trees. "Matrix" plots, in contrast, were chosen at random from the remaining, more homogenous forest. Diversity plots hosted from 25% to 40% more epiphytic lichen species than matrix plots in both stands. The strongest within-stand gradients in species composition were correlated with percentage of plot occupied by gaps and wolf trees. Percentage of the plot in gaps was correlated with species richness (r = 0.79). In the more structurally diverse stand, diversity and abundance of nitrogen-fixing "cyanolichens" were correlated with percentage of the plot occupied by gaps (0.5 < r < 0.9), and alectorioid lichens were correlated with percentage of the plot occupied by old-growth remnant trees (0.5 < r < 0.6). In the stand with more homogenous structure, percentage of the plot under gaps was correlated with regionally common species that were otherwise absent or sparse in the matrix. Protecting gaps, hardwoods, wolf trees, and old-growth remnant trees during thinning or other partial cutting is likely to promote the majority of epiphytic macrolichens in young conifer forests. Because these features are easily recognized on aerial photos and on the ground by land managers, it is practical to manage for forest structures that would promote lichen diversity.     

Plant Diversity Hotspots in the Atlantic Coastal Forests of Brazil

Abstract:  Plant-diversity hotspots on a global scale are well established, but smaller local hotspots within these must be identified for effective conservation of plants at the global and local scales. We used the distributions of endemic and endemic-threatened species of Myrtaceae to indicate areas of plant diversity and conservation importance within the Atlantic coastal forests ( Mata Atlântica ) of Brazil. We applied 3 simple, inexpensive geographic information system (GIS) techniques to a herbarium specimen database: predictive species-distribution modeling (Maxent); complementarity analysis (DIVA-GIS); and mapping of herbarium specimen collection locations. We also considered collecting intensity, which is an inherent limitation of use of natural history records for biodiversity studies. Two separate areas of endemism were evident: the Serra do Mar mountain range from Paraná to Rio de Janeiro and the coastal forests of northern Espírito Santo and southern Bahia. We identified 12 areas of approximately 35 km² each as priority areas for conservation. These areas had the highest species richness and were highly threatened by urban and agricultural expansion. Observed species occurrences, species occurrences predicted from the model, and results of our complementarity analysis were congruent in identifying those areas with the most endemic species. These areas were then prioritized for conservation importance by comparing ecological data for each.     

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Endangered Species Hotspots in the United States

Abstract: Given limited resources, many researchers advocate focusing conservation efforts on hotspots, geographical areas with high numbers of species (i.e., richness), endemic species, rare or threatened species, and/or high levels of threat to species survival. The hotspot approach is an efficient and simple way to conserve species diversity, assuming that hotspots do not change over space or time. We tested whether hotspots change across space and time using a database of endangered and threatened species listed by the U.S. government from 1967 to 1999. We determined hotspots based on the cumulative set of species listed for three overlapping and successively longer time periods: 1967–1979, 1967–1989, and 1967–1999. We used minimum area complimentarity analysis, which selected the smallest set of areas (in our study, U.S. counties) needed to represent a chosen set of species. Over time, the number of endangered and threatened species in the United States increased from 76 in 1967 to 1123 in 1999. As the number of species increased over time, hotspots changed in two ways: the number of hotspots increased and the rank of hotspots shifted. Hotspots increased from 84 in 1979, to 166 in 1989, to 217 in 1999. Only 63 of these counties were designated as hotspots in all three periods. The remaining changes resulted from addition and deletion of counties as hotspots over time. Some counties were removed from the list or changed in relative rank from one time period to the next regardless of their rank. Counties added as hotspots could rank anywhere on the list, and they were not merely low-ranking counties added to represent one or a few species. Therefore, hotspots serve as a useful tool for guiding conservation efforts but, given their spatiotemporal variability, do not represent a final solution.     

The Silent Mass Extinction of Insect Herbivores in Biodiversity Hotspots

Abstract: Habitat loss is silently leading numerous insects to extinction. Conservation efforts, however, have not been designed specifically to protect these organisms, despite their ecological and evolutionary significance. On the basis of species–host area equations, parameterized with data from the literature and interviews with botanical experts, I estimated the number of specialized plant‐feeding insects (i.e., monophages) that live in 34 biodiversity hotspots and the number committed to extinction because of habitat loss. I estimated that 795,971–1,602,423 monophagous insect species live in biodiversity hotspots on 150,371 endemic plant species, which is 5.3–10.6 monophages per plant species. I calculated that 213,830–547,500 monophagous species are committed to extinction in biodiversity hotspots because of reduction of the geographic range size of their endemic hosts. I provided rankings of biodiversity hotspots on the basis of estimated richness of monophagous insects and on estimated number of extinctions of monophagous species. Extinction rates were predicted to be higher in biodiversity hotspots located along strong environmental gradients and on archipelagos, where high spatial turnover of monophagous species along the geographic distribution of their endemic plants is likely. The results strongly support the overall strategy of selecting priority conservation areas worldwide primarily on the basis of richness of endemic plants. To face the global decline of insect herbivores, one must expand the coverage of the network of protected areas and improve the richness of native plants on private lands.     

The Bias of Complementarity Hotspots toward Marginal Populations

Abstract: It has been suggested that using complementarity to identify networks of important areas for conserving biodiversity may preferentially select areas within the margins of species ranges. We tested this idea by examining the location of complementarity hotspots in relation to two measures of range core-periphery. The first measures patterns of aggregation among records within each species' range to identify areas within the core (i.e., areas with aggregated distributions) and periphery (i.e., areas with scattered distributions) of the range. The second measures spatial turnover among species to identify areas with a high density of range edges. For three selected groups of terrestrial vertebrates in Europe—mammals, birds, and herptiles—areas chosen based on complementarity were located within the margins of species' ranges more often than expected by chance. This pattern was consistent for the two measures of core-periphery we used. The bias of complementarity hotspots toward marginal populations is especially important for species with restricted range sizes. If extinctions are determined mainly by demographic factors, then selecting areas at the peripheries of species' ranges might be a poor option. But if extinctions are determined mainly by extrinsic factors, then peripheral populations might be important to ensure the long-term persistence of species.     

Choice of Species-Area Function Affects Identification of Hotspots

Abstract: I tested the reliability of species-area curves for use in identifying hotspots, political or geographical regions of high species richness. On a species-area plot, hotspots are points (regions) that appear above the curve to a greater extent than other points. Because several different curves can be fit to species-area data, identification of hotspots may differ depending on the curve-fitting function used. I tested this hypothesis by comparing hotspots identified by the power function, the extreme value function, a linear function, and the exponential function. I examined several species-area data sets varying in size and in the presence of endemics. I defined hotspots as the highest 25% for small data sets and highest 10% and 25% for large data sets of standardized residuals from each function fitted to each data set. For some data sets, the functions agreed in identification of hotspots in that they identified 75% or more of the same hotspots. The extreme value function tended to identify hotspots not identified by the other three functions. For most data sets, the functions did not agree completely in identifying hotspots. Therefore, species-area curves should not be used as the sole means of identifying hotspots of species richness, although they can be used to examine the effect hotspot area has on richness for hotspots identified by other methods.     

金融危机中的电子商务的发展机遇

自从金融危机席卷全球,很多的实体企业遭受重创.而电子商务的降低成本,提高效率,增加市场机会、提高客户忠诚度等优势被认为是应对金融危机的杀手锏.描述了全球金融危机的影响,研究了中国电子商务的发展现状,对比了电子商务与传统商务模式的差异,进一步总结了电子商务在金融危机中的优势.得出了金融危机是促进电子商务的大力发展良好机遇的结论.图1,参4.     

Modeling Opportunity Costs of Conservation in Transitional Landscapes

Abstract:  Conservation scientists recognize the urgency of incorporating opportunity costs into conservation planning. Despite this, applications to date have been limited, perhaps partly because of the difficulty in determining costs in regions with limited data on land prices and ownership. We present methods for estimating opportunity costs of land preservation in landscapes or ecoregions that are a changing mix of agriculture and natural habitat. Our approach derives from the literature on estimating land values as opportunity costs of alternate land uses and takes advantage of general availability of necessary data, even in relatively data-poor regions. The methods integrate probabilities of habitat conversion with region-wide estimates of economic benefits from agricultural land uses and estimate land values with a discount rate to convert annual values into net present values. We applied our method in a landscape undergoing agricultural conversion in Paraguay. Our model of opportunity costs predicted an independent data set of land values and was consistent with implicit discount rates of 15–25%. Model-generated land values were strongly correlated with actual land values even after correcting for the effect of property size and proportion of property that was forested. We used the model to produce a map of opportunity costs and to estimate the costs of conserving forest within two proposed corridors in the landscape. This method can be applied to conservation planning in situations where natural habitat is currently being converted to market-oriented land uses. Incorporating not only biological attributes but also socioeconomic data can help in the design of efficient networks of protected areas that represent biodiversity at minimum costs.