A new typology for Portuguese beaches: An exploratory study

Beaches are now the most popular tourist destination and increased demand in the past 40 years has led not only to beach congestion but also to a differentiation between urban (resorts, overcrowded and under huge pressure), to natural (less crowded beaches). This diversity needs to be further explored not only to characterize individual beaches in a precise way, but also to understand the distinctive characteristics responsible for options made by beach users. Some attempts have been made to create a universal beach typology but sparse research has been undertaken. The topic is of extreme importance for beach management, as most studies only take into consideration beach usage type and few consider the surrounding environment (landscape). This paper presents an exploratory work for Portuguese beaches which creates a new classification, according to usage and surrounding environment, based on several variables, measured and weighted. The results scale between zero and five and assess how a beach can be classified along an urban (0) to natural (5) spectrum. Variables studied include population density, number of hotels urban density, car park distance to the beach, etc. A pilot study applied to 100 beaches in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, found that a densely populated region, can also contain beaches with natural characteristics.     

Tourist-beach protection in north-eastern Sicily (Italy)

Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean, and tourism represents the most important income in the regional budget. This is due to a mild climate, to its considerable archaeological and cultural heritage, but above all to the beaches, which host visitors for most of the year. Nevertheless, Sicily has no official Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) policy and also lacks an overall plan for coastal protection. In 2000, however, driven by the EU, a process of selection of projects based on objective parameters was initiated. Not all of these projects have had the expected results and some are yet to be completed. One of these is Giardini Naxos, Taormina beach, one of the main tourist resorts in Sicily. There, due both to the incorrect position of the port structure and to the rapidly increasing coastal urbanization (second homes, hotels and waterfront), a process of coastal erosion has started, the beach has disappeared, and the promenade has been damaged. To rebuild the shore in order to protect the structures behind it and to restore the coast for beach goers, a submerged barrier (like a reef) was designed to protect an artificial beach replenishment using local and remote sands, mined from the continental platform bottom and compatible both in terms of composition and grain size. Even though the results were excellent during the first stages of the project, towards the end, financial support disappeared and the funds were allocated to other projects. This experience in Giardini Naxos illustrates the ineffectiveness of defensive action in the absence of coastal planning that takes into account the sustainability of interventions on a regional basis both from a structural and an economic standpoint.     

Accurate DTM generation in sand beaches using mobile mapping

A Mobile Mapping System (MMS) is composed by a set of sensors placed on a mobile platform whose main objective is to obtain attitude and position over time of a referential in the platform together with the image of the objects surrounding the platform. The acquired data allows to obtain georeferenced positions of object points captured by the object sensors. This paper describes a methodology to automatically extract accurate Digital Terrain Models (DTM) of sand beach areas using a Terrestrial Mobile Mapping System (TMMS). The main goal of the presented TMMS is to obtain accurate 3D models of sand beaches. A very important consequence of this will be the abbility to track spatial and temporal changes in coastal geomorphology. The presented methodology has several advantages over more classical approaches: the overall cost, flexibility for regular surveys or at the most convenient epoch, such as after storms. Besides one of the major constraints in Mobile Mapping, that is poor GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) observation conditions, is usually not present in these areas. The TMMS uses two progressive colour video cameras and can work with any type of direct georeferencing system, which obvoiusly has impact in the final accuracy of the derived DTM. For the results herein reported, a dual frequency GNSS receiver and a low grade type of IMU (Inertial Measurement System) were used. The moving platform where the system was installed is a moto quad. The developed methodology for the DTM generation relies on an automatic choice of terrain points whose three-dimensional coordinates are calculated using a presented image matching technique. A cloud of points obtained in a nearly regular grid pattern is the base for the DTM. The proposed methodology was applied on a sector of the Vila Nova de Gaia Coast, in northern Portugal, and the results presented here show that it is possible with this methodology to produce DTMs with a precision of a few centimetres.     

Beachgoers’ perceptions of sandy beach conditions: demographic and attitudinal influences,and the implications for beach ecosystem management

Sandy beaches represent typical venues for recreation and tourism worldwide, as well as part of the lifestyle and identity of coastal communities. Their overexploitation, however, threatens their survival. Especially in urban areas, beach management requires balancing needs by different users and obligations to protect beach functions, including conservation. In light of this, research about the human dimension of beach ecosystems has been advanced as a way to assist planning and decision making in beach management. This study assessed beachgoers' perceptions of sandy beach conditions in South Africa, by means of a questionnaire survey. The effects of demographic profile, travelling habits, motivations to visit, and recreational preferences on beachgoers' perceptions of beach conditions were tested. Beachgoers shared a general concern for the wellbeing of sandy beaches, with particular reference to the state of biodiversity and conservation. They also gave great importance to the values underlying beach ecosystems. Three motivations to visit groups and four recreational preferences types were identified. Demography, travelling habits, motivations to visit, and recreational preferences all influenced perceptions of beach conditions. The results from this study were used to draw management recommendations, with particular attention towards the promotion of conservation while also maintaining the recreational quality of urban sandy beaches. The results also highlighted the relevance of considering users' views as a tool in decision-making processes in Integrated Coastal Zone Management.     

Educating citizens about their coastal environments: beach profiling in the Coastwatch project

The Coastwatch (CW) project is aimed at monitoring the coastline with the involvement of volunteers. Between 2003 and 2007 a beach profiling method was informally proposed to CW participants in Portugal as an extra activity to include in the surveys. Beach profiling contributes to a better understanding of coastal processes by providing quantitative information on the spatial/temporal evolution of beaches, which is crucial for coastal management. The profiling method proposed to the CW project is based on the physical principle of communicating vessels, and only requires a simple and inexpensive homemade ??profiler??. The simplicity of putting together and using the profiler, added to the arithmetic straightforwardness of data analysis, makes this method adequate for several kinds of users and for most levels of education. Eight workshops were held that included a classroom explanation of the method, the construction of a profiler, the actual profiling of a beach, and a final classroom session of data processing and graphing. About 140 participants received such training, and several among them independently undertook beach profiling. Surveyed participants found the workshop and the beach profiling method interesting and useful, and considered it a valuable tool for teaching and for management. External stakeholders (coastal managers) highlighted the importance of beach profiling data for management decisions and considered that this method produces robust data, even when carried out by volunteers. Further advantages of the application of the method, in the context of coastal management initiatives, for scientists, managers, and volunteers are discussed.     

Occurrence of tar balls on the beaches of Fernando de Noronha Island,South Equatorial Atlantic

This work reports on the widespread occurrence of tar balls on a pebble beach of Sueste Bay on Fernando de Noronha Island, a Brazilian national marine park and a preserve in the South Equatorial Atlantic. Environmental regulations preclude regular visitors to the Sueste Bay beach, and the bay is a pristine area without any possible or potential sources of petroleum in the coastal zone. In this work, these tar balls were observed for the first time as they occurred as envelopes around beach pebbles. They are black in color, very hard, have a shell and coral fragment armor, and range in average size from 2 to 6 cm. The shape of the majority of the tar balls is spherical, but some can also be flattened ellipsoids. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon analyses of the collected samples revealed the characteristics of a strongly weathered material, where only the most persistent compounds were detected: chrysene, benzo(b,k)fluoranthene, dibenzo(a,h)antracene and benzo(a)pyrene.     

Real-time hydro-environmental modeling and visualization system for public engagement

Quantitative environmental impact assessment (EIA) provides a tool for decision makers and the public to understand issues relating to sustainable development. The use of advanced hydro-environmental modelling and visualization technology can help to provide an intuitive and interactive digital platform to better communicate EIA issues and thus promote continuous public involvement and stakeholder engagement. Such a platform must be based on a robust hydrodynamic model engine that provides seamless predictions from the near to far field. This lecture summarizes the key issues of impact assessment in urban coastal cities, and presents examples of impact assessment of several major sewage outfalls, including the Hong Kong Harbour Area Treatment Scheme. The predictions of a recently developed Distributed Entrainment Sink Approach (DESA) for dynamic coupling of the near and far fields are compared with alternative “actual source" approaches and field experiments. The conceptual elements of a real time water quality forecast and management system are outlined.     

Policy relevance of three integrated assessment tools—A comparison with specific reference to agricultural policies

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), a system of market support instruments, direct income transfers, and rural development measures, has been put through an ongoing reform process in recent decades. This paper introduces three policy impact assessment tools (SIAT, SEAMLESS-IF, MEA-Scope tool) and analyses how these tools have responded to a number of challenges for integrated assessment modelling as reported in the international literature. Significant progress has been made with regard to modelling linkages whereas other challenges, particularly those related to issues of scale and uncertainty management, require further efforts. It is also analysed which CAP instruments are represented and what kinds of effects can be analysed at different scales. Market instruments and direct payments are comparatively well represented, while the ability to model rural development measures is mostly beyond the scope of these tools. Because each tool has found a different solution for coping with the common challenges of integrated assessment modelling, the choice of one of the tools for a particular application depends strongly on the policy questions being asked. The SIAT provides the big picture via its ability to represent broad changes in policy instruments with EU-wide cross-sector impacts. The most comprehensive analysis of agricultural policy instruments can be obtained with SEAMLESS-IF. The MEA-Scope tool complements the other two approaches with detailed regional profiles.     

A case study on the influence of beach kiosks on marine litter accumulating in Camboinhas beach,Southeast Brazil

Macroplastics are well known to be highly hazardous for marine wildlife, as well as being the most frequently encountered type of marine litter. The main objective of this work was to address the impact of beach kiosk presence on the occurrence of marine debris in a highly frequented beach in Southeast Brazil. For this work, three areas close to kiosks and three areas distant from kiosks were chosen for sampling and comparison. We conducted three transects at each location, each one including two meters of vegetation, from which debris was collected. Samples were taken to the laboratory so that they could be weighed and the debris was classified according to material. Our results show that, in every scenario, plastic was the most frequently found material. In addition, the amount of paper was found to be higher in areas close to kiosks. Presence of kiosks does not have an overall direct impact on the amount of litter. However, we found vegetated areas to have significantly higher volumes of debris, both in areas with and without beach kiosks.     

Design of a Domain Specific Language for modelling processes in landscapes

The modelling of processes that occur in landscapes is often confronted to issues related to the representation of space and the difficulty of properly handling time and multiple scales. In order to investigate these issues, a flexible modelling environment is required. We propose to develop such a tool based on a Domain Specific Language (DSL) that capitalises on the service-oriented architecture (SOA) paradigm. The modelling framework around the DSL is composed of a model building environment, a code generator and compiler, and a program execution platform. The DSL introduces five language elements (entity, service, relation, scenario and datafacer) that can be combined to offer a wide range of possibilities for modelling in space and time at different scales. When developing a model, model parts are either built using the DSL or taken from libraries of previously built ones, and adapted to the specific model. The practical usage of the DSL is illustrated first with the Lotka–Volterra model, and then with a landscape modelling experiment on the spread of a mosquito-borne disease in the Sahelian region of West Africa. An interesting characteristic of this approach is the possibility of adding new elements into an existing model, and replacing others with more appropriate ones, thus allowing potentially complex models to be built from simpler parts.     

Spatial structure, sampling design and abundance estimates in sandy beach macroinfauna: some warnings and new perspectives

We discuss methodological aspects directed to quantify the across-shore population structure and abundance of sandy beach macroinfauna. The reliability of estimates derived from design-based (stratified random sampling) and model-based (geostatistics, kriging) approaches is discussed. Our analysis also addresses potential biases arising from environmentally driven designs that consider a priori fixed strata for sampling macroinfauna, as opposed to species-driven sampling designs, in which the entire range of across-shore distribution is covered. Model-based approaches showed, spatially, highly autocorrelated and persistent structures in two intertidal populations of the Uruguayan coast: the isopod Excirolana armata and the yellow clam Mesodesma mactroides. Both populations presented zonation patterns that ranged from the base of the dunes to upper levels of the subtidal. The Gaussian model consistently explained the spatial distribution of species and population components (clam recruits and adults), with a minor contribution (Е%) of unresolved, small-scale variability. The consistent structure of spatial dependence in annual data strongly suggests an across-shore-structured process covering close to 35 m. Kriging predictions through cross-validation corroborated the appropriateness of the models fitted through variographic analysis, and the derived abundance estimates were very similar (maximum difference=7%) to those obtained from linear interpolation. Monthly analysis of E. armata data showed marked variations in its zonation and an unstable spatial structure according to the Gaussian model. The clear spatial structure resulting from species-driven sampling was not observed when data was truncated to simulate an environmentally driven sampling design. In this case, the linear semivariogram indicated a spatial gradient, suggesting that sampling was not performed at the appropriate spatial scale. Further, the cross-validation procedure was not significant, and both density and total abundance were underestimated. We conclude that: (1) geostatistics provides useful additional information about population structure and aids in direct abundance estimation; thus we suggest it as a powerful tool for further applications in the study of sandy beach macroinfauna; and that (2) environmentally driven sampling strategies fail to provide conclusive results about population structure and abundance, and should be avoided in studies of sandy beach populations. This is especially true for microtidal beaches, where unpredictable swash strength precludes a priori stratification through environmental reference points. The need to use adaptive sampling designs and avoid snapshot sampling is also stressed. Methodological implications for the detection of macroecological patterns in sandy beach macroinfauna are also discussed.     

Flood-risk mapping for storm surge and tsunami at Cocos Bay (Manzanilla), Trinidad

Cocos Bay is a barrier beach under threat of marine erosion from the high energy environment of the Atlantic Ocean. This barrier beach borders the Ramsar listed Nariva Swamp, and helps maintain its delicate wetland ecosystem, however, ongoing coastal erosion at this beach threatens the longevity of this freshwater wetland. Due to the geographical location of Cocos Bay being exposed to Atlantic generated storm events and the low relief of the study area, there is a potential threat of storm surges breaching the barrier beach. Owing to the geological setting of the region (located in an active seismic province with earthquakes, volcanicity and landslides), there also exists the threat of tsunamis. This paper is a GIS simulation of the area extent of inundation and the affected infrastructure from such events. It utilizes a DEM and land-use to quantifying inundation areas, and the extent of vulnerability of various elements. The low relief of the barrier beach renders the area extremely vulnerable from events that trigger sea level increases. Simulations revealed that as little as a 1 m storm surge has the potential to disrupt the Nariva Swamp and threaten coastal infrastructure while higher storm surges and tsunamis have the potential to decimate the entire area. The flood-risk model generated indicates a very high vulnerability to storm surges, along the entire length of the coastline. These results have implications for future development and sustainable management of this ecologically sensitive area.     

Multi-model approach and evaluation of the uncertainty of model results. Rationale and applications to predict the behaviour of contaminants in the abiotic components of the fresh water environment

This work aims at discussing some concepts pertaining to the theory and practice of environmental modelling in view of the results of several model validation exercises performed by the group “Model validation for radionuclide transport in the system watershed-river and in estuaries” of project EMRAS (Environmental Modelling for Radiation Safety) supported by the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). The analyses here performed concern models applied to real scenarios of environmental contamination. In particular, the reasons for the uncertainty of the models and the EBUA (empirically based uncertainty analysis) methodology are discussed. The foundations of multi-model approach in environmental modelling are presented and motivated. An application of EBUA to the results of a multi-model exercise concerning three models aimed at predicting the wash-off of radionuclide deposits from the Pripyat floodplain (Ukraine) was described. Multi-model approach is, definitely, a tool for uncertainty analysis. EBUA offers the opportunity of an evaluation of the uncertainty levels of predictions in multi-model applications.     

Long-shore distribution of morphodynamic beach states along an apparently homogeneous coast in SW Spain

We present a morphodynamic study of an apparently homogeneous rectilinear coast in SW Spain. The study area covers 14 km of mesotidal sandy beaches, interrupted in some places by rocky-shore platforms. The method used consisted of a monthly monitoring of 12 beach profiles during two years. According to the results obtained from the study, which also include granulometric analyses andin situ determination of the beach disturbance depth, three main beach classes have been differentiated: low-reflective beaches, dissipative beaches and rocky-shore platform beaches. Their longitudinal distribution is not linked to their distance to the main source of sediments in the area (mouth of the river Guadalquivir). Instead, a very irregular long-shore variation of morphodynamic beach states appears. It is deduced that this long-shore variation is mainly linked to local contouring conditions (e.g. the presence of rocky shoals which affect wave-breaking processes), and not to the regional long-shore currents prevailing in the zone.     

Hele-Shaw beach creation by breaking waves: a mathematics-inspired experiment

Fundamentals of nonlinear wave-particle interactions are studied experimentally in a Hele-Shaw configuration with wave breaking and a dynamic bed. To design this configuration, we determine, mathematically, the gap width which allows inertial flows to survive the viscous damping due to the side walls. Damped wave sloshing experiments compared with simulations confirm that width-averaged potential-flow models with linear momentum damping are adequately capturing the large scale nonlinear wave motion. Subsequently, we show that the four types of wave breaking observed at real-world beaches also emerge on Hele-Shaw laboratory beaches, albeit in idealized forms. Finally, an experimental parameter study is undertaken to quantify the formation of quasi-steady beach morphologies due to nonlinear, breaking waves: berm or dune, beach and bar formation are all classified. Our research reveals that the Hele-Shaw beach configuration allows a wealth of experimental and modelling extensions, including benchmarking of forecast models used in the coastal engineering practice, especially for shingle beaches.     

Evolution of a beach nourishment project using dredged sand from navigation channel,Dunkirk, northern France

The largest beach replenishment project ever in France was completed in February 2014 in Dunkirk on the coast of northern France. A volume of 1.5 × 10⁶ m³ of sand extracted from a navigation channel was placed on the beach to build up a 150 to 300 m wide supratidal platform in front of a dike, called « Digue des Alliés », which protects several residential districts of Dunkirk from marine flooding. High resolution topographic surveys were carried out during 2½ years to monitor beach morphological changes, completed by a hydrodynamic field experiment conducted in February 2016. Approximately ?138,200 m³ of sand, corresponding to 9.2% of the initial nourishment volume, were eroded over the nourishment area in about 2 years. An obvious decrease in erosion eastward with a shift from erosion to accumulation was observed, suggesting an eastward redistribution of sand. This longshore sand drift is beneficial for the eastward beach of Malo-les-Bains where most of the recreational activities are concentrated. Hydrodynamic measurements showed that waves and wave-induced currents play a major role on the longshore sand redistribution compared to tidal flows. Strong relationships were observed between cumulative offshore wave power and beach volume change during distinct beach survey periods (R² = 0.79 to 0.87), with more significant correlations for northerly waves. A slight decrease in erosion during the second year compared to the first year after nourishment suggests that the loss of sand should decrease after an initial phase of rapid readjustment of the beach shape towards equilibrium.     

A multi-scale approach to modelling spatial and dynamic ecological patterns for reservoir's water quality management

With growing levels of urbanization and agriculture throughout the world, it is increasingly important that both research and management efforts take into account the effects of this widespread landscape alteration and its consequences for natural systems. Freshwater ecosystems, namely reservoirs, are particularly sensitive to land use changes. In this context, modelling can be very useful, for decision support, as an investigative tool to forecast the outcome of various scenarios, to guide current management in order to meet future targets and to develop integrated frameworks for management accordingly to the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The present paper examined the applicability of a holistic Stochastic-Dynamic Methodology (StDM), coupled with a Cellular Automata (CA) model, in capturing how expected changes at land use level will alter the ecological status of lentic ecosystems, namely at physicochemical and biological levels. The methodology was applied to Portuguese reservoirs located in the Douro's basin and illustrated with a series of stochastic-dynamic and spatial outputs taking into account expected scenarios regarding land use changes. Overall, the simulation results are encouraging since they seem to demonstrate the tool reliability in capturing the stochastic environmental dynamics of the selected metrics facing spatial explicit scenarios. The ultimate goal was to couple monitoring assessment and the described modelling techniques to ease management and decision making regarding the practical implementation of the WFD, both at the scale of the reservoir body and at the scale of the respective river watershed dynamics.     

Inter-seasonal maintenance of individual nest site preferences in hawksbill sea turtles

Within a single population of hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata), we found a behavioral polymorphism for maternal nest site choice with respect to beach microhabitat characteristics. Some females preferred to nest in littoral forest and in places with overstory vegetation cover, and others preferred to nest in more open, deforested areas. Nest site choice was consistent within and between nesting seasons two years apart. This was not a result of females simply returning to the same location along the shoreline; beach sections used by individual turtles varied between seasons. Nest site choice was not influenced by changes in beach environment (e.g., beach width and foliage cover) or by changes in females' reproductive output (e.g., clutch size), suggesting that fidelity to particular microhabitats is a major determinant of the observed nesting patterns. Because hawksbills exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, if the behavioral polymorphism in nest site choice has a genetic basis, as is plausible, then this would have implications for sex ratio evolution and offspring survival. By taking an individual-based approach to the study of maternal behavior we reveal previously overlooked individual variation and hope to provide some impetus for more detailed studies of nest site choice.     

Responses of fish assemblage structures to sandy beach types in Kyushu Island, southern Japan

To determine differences in fish assemblage structures between beach morphodynamic types on an exposed sandy shore, three beach types (reflective, intermediate, and dissipative) were sampled at Fukiagehama Beach, Kyushu Island, southern Japan, in May, August, and November 2006 and 2007. Distinct differences in physical conditions and the amount of major prey invertebrates, such as copepods, mysids, and amphipods, were recognized between the three beach types. The reflective beach was characterized mainly by turbulent swashes, coarse sediment, and a low abundance of major prey invertebrates. In contrast, the dissipative beach was characterized mostly by benign swashes, fine sediment, and a high abundance of prey invertebrates. The intermediate beach tended toward an intermediate condition between the reflective and dissipative beaches. The fish assemblage structures also differed clearly between the three beach types, with species and individual numbers being greatest on the dissipative beach and lowest on the reflective beach. A similarity index indicated differences in species composition of the assemblages between the beach types. Such differences arose primarily from the differential distributions of two dominant trophic groups, zooplankton (mostly copepods) and epibenthic crustacean (mainly mysids and amphipods) feeders, between the beach types, both groups tending to increase in species and individual numbers from the reflective beach to the dissipative beach. In addition, the mean standard length of all fish collected in each month tended to decrease toward the dissipative beach. These results suggested that beach types strongly influence sandy beach fish assemblage structures.