Environmental and human exposure assessment monitoring of communities near an abandoned mercury mine in the Philippines: a toxic legacy

Abandoned mines are an important global concern and continue to pose real or potential threats to human safety and health including environmental damage/s. Very few countries had government mine regulation and reclamation policies until the latter part of the century where legal, financial and technical procedures were required for existing mining operations. Major reasons for mine closure may be mainly due to poor economies of the commodity making mining unprofitable, technical difficulties and national security. If the mine is abandoned, more often than not it is the government that shoulders the burden of clean-up, monitoring and remediation. The topic of abandoned mines is complex because of the associated financial and legal liability implications. Abandoned mercury mines have been identified as one of the major concerns because of their significant long-term environmental problems. Primary mercury production is still ongoing in Spain, Kyrgzystan, China, Algeria, Russia and Slovakia while world production declined substantially in the late 1980s. In the Philippines, the mercury mine located southeast of Manila was in operation from 1955 to 1976, before ceasing operation because of the decline in world market price for the commodity. During this time, annual production of mercury was estimated to be about 140,000 kg of mercury yearly. Approximately 2,000,000 t of mine-waste calcines (retorted ore) were produced during mining and roughly 1,000,000 t of these calcines were dumped into nearby Honda Bay to construct a jetty to facilitate mine operations where about 2000 people reside in the nearby three barangays. In October, 1994 the Department of Health received a request from the Provincial Health Office for technical assistance relative to the investigation of increasing complaints of unusual symptoms (e.g. miscarriages, tooth loss, muscle weakness, paralysis, anemia, tremors, etc.) among residents of three barangays. Initial health reports revealed significant elevation of blood mercury levels exceeding the then recommended exposure level of 20ppb in 12 out of the 43 (27.9%) residents examined. The majority of the volunteers were former mine workers. In this study the abnormal findings included gingivitis, mercury lines, gum bleeding and pterydium. The most common neurologic complaints were numbness, weakness, tremors and incoordination. Anemia and elevated liver function tests were also seen in a majority of those examined. The assessment also revealed a probable association between blood mercury level and eosinophilia. The same association was also seen between high mercury levels and the presence of tremors and working in the mercury mine. To date, there are very limited environmental and health studies on the impact of both total and methylmercury that have been undertaken in the Philippines. Thus, this area of study was selected primarily because of its importance as an emerging issue in the country, especially regarding the combined effects of total and methylmercury low-dose and continuous uptake from environmental sources. At present the effects of total mercury exposure combined with MeHg consumption remain an important issue, especially those of low-dose and continuous uptake. Results of the study showed that four (4) species of fish, namely ibis, tabas, lapu-lapu and torsillo, had exceeded the recommended total mercury and methylmercury levels in fish (NV>0.5 microg/gf.w., NV>0.3 microg/gf.w., respectively). Saging and kanuping also exceeded the permissible levels for methylmercury. Total and methylmercury in canned fish, and total mercury in rice, ambient air and drinking water were within the recommended levels, however, additional mercury load from these sources may contribute to the over-all body burden of mercury among residents in the area. Surface water quality at the mining area, Honda Bay and during some monitoring periods at Palawan Bay exceeded total mercury standards (NV>0.002 ng/mL). Soil samples in two sites, namely Tagburos and Honda Bay, exceeded the EPA Region 9 Primary Remediation Goal recommended values for total mercury for residential purposes (NV>23 mg/kg). The hand to mouth activity among infants and children is another significant route for mercury exposure. Statistically significant results were obtained for infants when comparing the results after one year of monitoring for methylmercury levels in hair for both exposed and control sub-groups. Likewise, comparing the initial and final hair methylmercury levels among pregnant women/mothers in the exposed group showed statistically significant (p<0.05) results. Comparing the exposed and control sub-groups' mercury hair levels per sub-group showed statistically significant results among the following: (a) initial and final total mercury hair levels among children, (b) initial and final methylmercury hair levels among children, (c) final total mercury hair levels among pregnant women, (d) initial and final total mercury hair levels among mothers, and (e) initial and final methyl hair levels among mothers.     

Institutional frameworks to direct development and implementation of great lakes remedial action plans

Locally designed, institutional frameworks are being used to develop and implement remedial action plans (RAPs) to restore beneficial uses in 43 Great Lakes areas of concern. A 1993 Canada-United States roundtable was convened to learn from case studies and to develop recommendations regarding essential characteristics of RAP institutional frameworks, guidance to ensure linkages to other related plans, and ways of embracing new institutional frameworks from RAP development to implementation. Major roundtable recommendations are: (1) RAP institutional frameworks should be empowered to pursue their mission of restoring uses. Empowerment would be demonstrated by: a watershed focus, inclusive and shared decision-making, clear responsibilities and sufficient authority, creative funding capability, flexibility and continuity in the process, an iterative process of continuous improvement, and commitment to education and outreach. (2) RAP institutional frameworks should be used as mechanisms to coordinate programs at the local level. Such local coordination should be complemented with governmental commitments to intra- and interagency coordination in work plans. (3) RAP institutional frameworks can help build the capacity of governments to achieve their goals. Therefore, governments must adopt long-term, visionary goals and commit to a customer-driven RAP process of continuous improvement.     

Exploring the effects of multiple management objectives and exotic species on great lakes food webs and contaminant dynamics

A simulation model was developed to describe linkages among fish food web, nutrient cycling, and contaminant processes in the southern basin of Lake Michigan. The model was used to examine possible effects of management actions and an exotic zooplankter (Bythotrephes) on Lake Michigan food web and contaminant dynamics. The model predicts that contaminant concentrations in salmonines will decrease by nearly 20% ifBythotrephes successfully establishes itself in the lake. The model suggests that this decrease will result from lowered transfer efficiencies within the food web and increased flux of contaminants to the hypolimnion. The model also indicates that phosphorus management will have little effect on contaminant concentrations in salmonines. The modeling exercise helped identify weaknesses in the data base (e.g., incomplete information on contaminant loadings and on the biomass, production, and ecological efficiencies of dominant organisms) that should be corrected in order to make reliable management decisions.     

Non-point source mercury emission from the Idrija Hg-mine region: GIS mercury emission model

A mercury emission model was developed to estimate non-point source mercury (Hg) emissions occurring over the year from the Idrijca River catchment, draining the area of the world's second largest Hg mine in Idrija, Slovenia. Site-specific empirical correlations between the measured Hg emission fluxes and the parameters controlling the emission (comprising substrate Hg content, soil temperature, solar radiation and soil moisture) were incorporated into the mercury emission model developed using Geographic Information System technology. In this way, the spatial distribution and significance of the most polluted sites that need to be properly managed was assessed. The modelling results revealed that annually approximately 51 kg of mercury are emitted from contaminated surfaces in the catchment (640 km(2)), highlighting that emission from contaminated surfaces contributes significantly to the elevated Hg concentrations in the ambient air of the region. Very variable meteorological conditions in the modelling domain throughout the year resulted in the high seasonal and spatial variations of mercury emission fluxes observed. Moreover, it was found that mercury emission fluxes from surfaces in the Idrija region are 3-4 fold higher than the values commonly used in models representing emissions from global mercuriferous belts. Sensitivity and model uncertainty analysis indicated the importance of knowing not only the amount but also the type of mercury species and their binding in soils in future model development.     

Integrating limnological characteristics of high mountain lakes into the landscape of a natural area

A general conceptual watershed-lake model of the complex interactions among climatic conditions, watershed location and characteristics, lake morphology, and fish predation was used to evaluate limnological characteristics of high mountain lakes. Our main hypothesis was that decreasing elevation in mountainous terrain corresponds to an increase in diversity of watershed size and lake area, depth, temperature, nutrient concentrations, and productivity. A second hypothesis was that watershed location and aspect relative to climatic gradients within mountainous terrain influences the limnological characteristics of the lakes. We evaluated these hypotheses by examining watershed location, aspect and size; lake morphology; water quality; and phytoplankton and zooplankton community characteristics among high mountain forest and subalpine lakes in Mount Rainier National Park. Although many of the comparisons between all forest and subalpine lakes were statistically insignificant, the results revealed trends that were consistent with our hypotheses. The forest lake group included more lakes with larger watersheds, larger surface areas, greater depths, higher concentrations of nutrients, and higher algal biovolumes than did the group of subalpine lakes. Deep lakes, which were mostly of the forest lake type, exhibited thermal stratification and relatively high values of some of the water-quality variables near the lake bottoms. However, the highest near-surface water temperatures and phytoplankton densities and the taxonomic structures of the phytoplankton and zooplankton assemblages were more closely related to geographical location, which corresponded to a west-east climate gradient in the park, than to lake type. Some crustacean and rotifer taxa, however, were limited in distribution by lake type. Fish predation did not appear to play an important role in the structure of the crustacean zooplankton communities at the genus level with the exception of Mowich Lake, where crustacean taxa were absent from the zooplankton community. This was the only lake inhabited by a true zooplanktivourous species of fish.     

Relative cancer risks of chemical contaminants in the great lakes

Anyone who drinks water or eats fish from the Great Lakes consumes potentially carcinogenic chemicals. In choosing how to respond to such pollution, it is important to put the risks these contaminants pose in perspective. Based on recent measurements of carcinogens in Great Lakes fish and water, calculations of lifetime risks of cancer indicate that consumers of sport fish face cancer risks from Great Lakes contaminants that are several orders of magnitude higher than the risks posed by drinking Great Lakes water. But drinking urban groundwater and breathing urban air may be as hazardous as frequent consumption of sport fish from the Great Lakes. Making such comparisons is difficult because of variation in types and quality of information available and in the methods for estimating risk. Much uncertainty pervades the risk assessment process in such areas as estimating carcinogenic potency and human exposure to contaminants. If risk assessment is to be made more useful, it is important to quantify this uncertainty.     

我国湖泊的环境问题及治理对策

我国湖泊众多,类型多样,分布不均衡;以浅水、小型、老年消亡期为主,富营养化特征系浮游植物响应型为主;水源污染主要是富营养化和有机污染;污染治理对策应以生态系统修复为根本,控制陆源污染物为前提。     

The influence of metal source uncertainty on cost-effective allocation of mine water pollution abatement in catchments

In mine water pollution abatement, it is commonly assumed that known mine waste sites are the major pollution sources, thus neglecting the possibility of significant contribution from other old and diffuse sources within a catchment. We investigate the influence of different types of pollution source uncertainty on cost-effective allocation of abatement measures for mine water pollution. A catchment-scale cost-minimization model is developed and applied to the catchment of the river Dalälven, Sweden, in order to exemplify important effects of such source uncertainty. Results indicate that, if the pollution distribution between point and diffuse sources is partly unknown, downstream abatement measures, such as constructed wetlands, at given compliance boundaries are often cost-effective. If downstream abatement measures are not practically feasible, the pollution source distribution between point and diffuse mine water sources is critical for cost-effective solutions to abatement measure allocation in catchments. In contrast, cost-effective solutions are relatively insensitive to uncertainty in total pollutant discharge from mine water sources.     

Environmental assessment of mercury dispersion, transformation and bioavailability in the Lake Victoria Goldfields, Tanzania

Environmental dispersion and transformation of mercury discharged from gold mining operations has been investigated in field and laboratory studies in order to provide better understanding of the degree of mercury (Hg) pollution and bioavailability in the Lake Victoria goldfields (LVGF) ecosystems. This paper reviews results already published elsewhere and presents additional data on Hg dynamics in the LVGF. Studies conducted at the Mugusu and Rwamagaza artisanal mines indicated different degrees of Hg contamination and dispersion in environmental matrices. Mercury concentration in contaminated river sediments near the Mugusu mine varied from 6.0 to 0.5 mg/kg on a dry weight basis. The highest Hg contamination levels (165-232 mg/kg) were associated with mine tailings at the Rwamagaza mine. Mercury concentrations in fish representing different dietary habits on the southwestern shore of Lake Victoria at the Nungwe Bay were very low (2-35 microg/kg) and thought to represent background levels. These and other results suggested that the use of Hg in gold extraction in the LVGF has not caused high Hg levels in lake fish. The study of Hg in lichens showed Parmelia lichen to be an effective bioindicator for atmospheric Hg contamination due to Hg emissions from gold-amalgam firing and purification operations. The Hg levels in the lichens around the Mugusu mine ranged from 3.1 to 0.1 microg/g; the highest levels were recorded in the lichens sampled close to gold-amalgam processing sites. The regional background level in the Parmelia lichen was 0.05-0.10 microg/g, with a mean level of 0.07 microg/g. Studies of Hg transformation in the mine tailings revealed unexpectedly high methylmercury (MeHg) levels in the tailings (629-710 ng/g), which indicated that oxidation and methylation of metallic Hg in the tailings occurred at significant levels under tropical conditions. Re-equilibration of the tailings with freshwater (FW) indicated the MeHg was firmly bound in the tailings and therefore very little MeHg was released to the water column (0.2-1.5 ng/L). The methylation of Hg in tropical loamy clay soil contaminated with HgCl(2) (5 mg Hg/kg) yielded MeHg concentrations of 11 and 14 ng/g when inundated with seawater and FW, respectively, for 4 weeks. Little MeHg was transferred from the soil to the equilibrated water (< or = 0.4 ng/L). Atmospheric exposure of the soil pre-inundated with FW resulted in net degradation of MeHg during the 1st week of exposure, followed by net production and accumulation of MeHg in the soil (up to 15.5 ng/g) during atmospheric desiccation. Mercury uptake by fish from the Hg(0)-contaminated aquatic sediment-tailings system in the aquarium experiment was found to be low, suggesting the low availability of MeHg for bioaccumulation in the system. These and other results provide useful insights into Hg transformation, mobility and bioavailability in tropical aquatic systems affected by Hg pollution from gold mining operations.     

An assessment of historical change in two northern Minnesota lakes

Two northern Minnesota lakes that had been studied in detail 22 years earlier (1958) were restudied to determine the extent of alteration in ecological conditions. Approximately one year after the original investigation, a coal-fired power plant, which incremented sulfate loading by about 6 kg/ha-yr, began operation nine miles away. These lakes lie within a region judged susceptible to acidic precipitation, though each lake, based on its buffering capacity, would be judged only moderately sensitive. In spite of the influence of this plant and other anthropogenic inputs, the change in lake ecology was apparently minimal. Water clarity decreased in both lakes and some alteration in zooplankton community structure was observed. The long-term utility of lake surveys depends upon how carefully and completely conditions can be reconstructed from records and reports. Past surveys generally omit measures of variability for the data, allowing only qualitative comparisons to be drawn. In order to judge the graded responses of aquatic ecosystems, necessary to sound management, quantitative measures are needed.Deceased.     

Regeneration of spent organoclays after the sorption of organic pollutants: A review

Clay minerals modified with organic ions, also known as organoclays, have found applications in a wide range of organic pollution control fields because of their excellent sorption capacity towards organic pollutants. Regeneration of the spent organoclays after the sorption of organic pollutants is of great importance during their application in pollution control. In this review, the reported methods for the regeneration of the spent organoclays are summarized, including biological degradation, photo-assisted oxidation, chemical extraction/desorption, supercritical extraction, thermal desorption, et al. The characteristics and applications of these methods are briefly described. It shows that most of these methods have been developed for regenerating spent organoclays from wastewater treatment. The biological regeneration method, as an in situ, low cost and easy-operating method, is applicable for regenerating spent organoclays not only from wastewater treatment, but also from soil and groundwater remediation.     

Health and environmental assessment of mercury exposure in a gold mining community in Western Mindanao, Philippines

The small-scale gold mining activities using mercury began in the late 1980s in Sibutad, Western Mindanao. It is located very near the Murcielagos Bay with tailing ponds directly discharging into bodies of water. This cross-sectional study aimed to determine the health and environmental effects of gold mining activities on the community. Residents were randomly selected and classified into two groups, namely, the directly exposed and indirectly exposed populations using a set inclusion criteria. Complete medical and laboratory examinations were performed. Environmental and biologic samples were collected for total mercury and methylmercury determinations. The results showed that the directly exposed group had significantly higher mean blood total mercury and methylmercury levels in comparison with the indirectly exposed population. Although there were no significant differences between hair total mercury and methylmercury levels, there was a trend for higher levels of these biomarkers among the directly exposed residents as compared with the unexposed group. The absence of statistically significant differences may be attributable to the small sample size. Ambient air quality monitoring for mercury exceeded the allowable levels. However, levels of mercury in drinking water and sediments were within allowable limits. Frequency of gastrointestinal complaints was significantly associated with elevated hair methylmercury levels (p=0.02). Also, there appears to be a trend towards higher blood total mercury levels and frequency of gastrointestinal complaints (p=0.09). An interesting finding in this study was the increasing incidence of elevated diastolic blood pressure with elevated hair total mercury levels (p=0.07). Mercury storage at home is a risk factor.     

Managing the impact of climate change on the hydrology of the Gallocanta Basin,NE-Spain

The Gallocanta Basin represents an environment highly sensitive to climate change. Over the past 60 years, the Laguna de Gallocanta, an ephemeral lake situated in the closed Gallocanta basin, experienced a sequence of wet and dry phases. The lake and its surrounding wetlands are one of only a few bird sanctuaries left in NE-Spain for grey cranes on their annual migration from Scandinavia to northern Africa. Understanding the impact of climate change on basin hydrology is therefore of utmost importance for the appropriate management of the bird sanctuary. Changes in lake level are only weakly linked to annual rainfall, with reaction times between hours and months after rainfall. Both the total amount of rainfall over the reaction period, as well as individual extreme events, affect lake level. In this study the characteristics and frequencies of daily, event, monthly and bi-monthly rainfall over the past 60 years were analysed. The results revealed a clear link between increased frequencies of high magnitude rainfall and phases of water filling in the Laguna de Gallocanta. In the middle of the 20th century, the absolute amount of rainfall appears to have been more important for lake level, while more recently the frequency of high magnitude rainfall has emerged as the dominant variable.     

Labour challenges and mercury management at gold mills in Zimbabwe: Examining production processes and proposals for change

The use of mercury in small-scale gold mining has been a growing concern in many parts of Africa. However, although the negative effects of mercury pollution are increasingly reported, little has been written about how labour relationships and gold production challenges in mining communities affect mercury management practices. This article provides an integrative analysis of small-scale gold extraction processes, labour challenges, and mercury use at gold mills in Zimbabwe, focusing on a gold rush area in Mashonaland West Province. It examines practices employed by miners who have limited economic capacities to upgrade technologies, and how the complex relationships between miners, mill owners and government regulators affect environmental performance. The study draws attention to how poor environmental management practices relate to labour inequities, low gold recovery as well as the informal gold trade dynamics amid the country's economic crisis. Results of a United Nations-supported stakeholder consultation process are discussed, with proposals for improving labour conditions and reducing environmental risk. The article highlights why the government should develop and support local programs to assist miners, as well as the decisive roles mill owners could take in ensuring improved standards on their sites.     

Alkaline hydrothermal conversion of fly ash precipitates into zeolites 3: the removal of mercury and lead ions from wastewater

In this paper, the utilisation of zeolites synthesised from fly ash (FA) and related co-disposal filtrates as low-cost adsorbent material were investigated. When raw FA and co-disposal filtrates were subjected to alkaline hydrothermal zeolite synthesis, the zeolites faujasite, sodalite and zeolite A were formed. The synthesised zeolites were explored to establish its ability to remove lead and mercury ions from aqueous solution in batch experiments, to which various dosages of the synthesised zeolites were added. The test results indicated that when increasing synthesised zeolite dosages of 5-20 g/L were added to the acid mine drainage (AMD) wastewater, the concentrations of lead and mercury in the wastewater were reduced accordingly. The lead concentrations were reduced from 3.23 to 0.38 and 0.17 microg/kg, respectively, at an average pH of 4.5, after the addition of raw FA zeolite and co-disposal filtrate zeolite to the AMD wastewater. On the other hand, the mercury concentration was reduced from 0.47 to 0.17 microg/kg at pH=4.5 when increasing amounts of co-disposal filtrate zeolite were added to the wastewater. The experimental results had shown that the zeolites synthesised from the co-disposal filtrates were effective in reducing the lead and mercury concentrations in the AMD wastewater by 95% and 30%, respectively.     

Regional differences in mercury levels in aquatic ecosystems: A discussion of possible causal factors with implications for the Tennessee river system and the Northern Hemisphere

Concern about mercury pollution from atmospheric deposition has risen markedly in the last decade because of high levels of mercury in freshwater fish from relatively pristine waters. Whereas high concentrations have been found principally in Canada, the northern United States, and Scandinavia, they have also recently been observed throughout much of Florida. Recent surveys of the Tennessee River system, however, have found no locations where fish levels exceed EPA guidelines for fish consumption. This paper evaluates a number of factors that may cause certain regions in the northern hemisphere to experience unacceptable fish mercury levels while other regions do not. Relevant regional differences include: (1) Waters of the Tennessee River system are generally nonacidic (pH>6) and well buffered, whereas 16%, 22%, and 40% of the lakes in upper Midwest, Northeast, and Florida, respectively, have acid-neutralizing capacities below 50 μeq/liter. Acidity correlates highly with fish mercury levels in a number of lake surveys, and experimental manipulations of acidity have significantly raised fish mercury levels. (2) The ratio of land area to water surface area in the Tennessee Valley averages about 30, whereas it is 15 in the upper Midwest and 6 in Florida. Low ratios allow mercury in precipitation to be directly deposited to aquatic bodies, without an opportunity for the mercury to be sequestered by terrestrial ecosystems. (3) Stream organic matter concentrations in Florida, the upper Midwest, and Sweden are 2–10 times those in the Tennessee Valley. Mercury binds strongly to organic matter, and organic matter transport in runoff is a major pathway by which mercury enters aquatic ecosystems.     

Impact of forest policies on timber production in India: a review

Until the 20th century, forest policies across the globe focused primarily on effective forest utilization for timber production. Subsequent loss of forest land prompted many countries to review and amend such policies, in an attempt to incorporate the principles of conservation and sustainable forest management. One of the countries to implement such changes was India, which introduced new policies, acts and programmes to regulate forest conversion and degradation, beginning in the 1980s. These policies, acts, and programmes included the Forest Conservation Act of 1980, the National Forest Policy of 1988 and the Hon. Supreme Court Order of 1996. All of these regulations affected the timber supply from government forest areas, and created a huge gap in timber supply and demand. Currently, this deficit is met through imports and trees outside forests (TOFs). Timber production from government forest areas is abysmally low (3.35% of total demand) compared to potential timber production from TOFs, which fulfil 45% of the total timber demand in India. This implies that TOFs have immense potential in meeting the growing timber demand; however, they have not been fully utilized due to discrepancies in state level TOFs’ policies. The present paper provides a review of different forest policies, acts and guidelines in relation to timber production in India, and provides specific recommendations in order to maximize timber production in the context of increasing demand for timber products.     

Distribution and mobility of mercury in soils of a gold mining region, Cuyuni river basin, Venezuela

An extensive and remote gold mining region located in the East of Venezuela has been studied with the aim of assessing the distribution and mobility of mercury in soil and the level of Hg pollution at artisanal gold mining sites. To do so, soils and pond sediments were sampled at sites not subject to anthropological influence, as well as in areas affected by gold mining activities. Total Hg in regionally distributed soils ranged between 0.02 mg kg(-1) and 0.40 mg kg(-1), with a median value of 0.11 mg kg(-1), which is slightly higher than soil Hg worldwide, possibly indicating long-term atmospheric input or more recent local atmospheric input, in addition to minor lithogenic sources. A reference Hg concentration of 0.33 mg kg(-1) is proposed for the detection of mining affected soils in this region. Critical total Hg concentrations were found in the surrounding soils of pollutant sources, such as milling-amalgamation sites, where soil Hg contents ranged from 0.16 mg kg(-1) to 542 mg kg(-1) with an average of 26.89 mg kg(-1), which also showed high levels of elemental Hg, but quite low soluble+exchangeable Hg fraction (0.02-4.90 mg kg(-1)), suggesting low Hg soil mobility and bioavailability, as confirmed by soil column leaching tests. The vertical distribution of Hg through the soil profiles, as well as variations in soil Hg contents with distance from the pollution source, and Hg in pond mining sediments were also analysed.     

Green jobs for the disadvantaged: an analysis of government policies in British Columbia

This study explores the potential for societies to create more green jobs for the disadvantaged. The research questions are related to how policy instruments can support green jobs and how green jobs can support the disadvantaged. These questions are asked in the context of the province of British Columbia in Canada, with implications for the global economy. Findings indicate that green jobs policies have direct and indirect effects on the growth of sustainable industries at a municipal level. Furthermore, in BC policy, green jobs are unmistakably connected to the government perception of green growth. Finally, the preferred pathway for policy implementation appears to involve local municipalities that apply for funding for projects that can potentially connect local actors and include the disadvantaged. Several policies accomplish the inclusion of the disadvantaged. The first section of this paper provides the BC provincial context on green jobs. The second section describes and analyzes a sample of thirteen BC policy instruments, as well as concurrent labor market policy activities for their inclusion of the disadvantaged. The third section posits a provisional policy framework for training and hiring more inclusively for green jobs. The fourth section offers six recommendations to bolster green jobs for all at a national and international level.     

Characterising the landscape of state environmental review policies and procedures in the United States: a national assessment

Following the intent of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, many states have adopted policies and procedures directing state agencies and local government units to evaluate the potential environmental impacts of development projects prior to their undertaking. In contrast to a rich literature on federal requirements, current understanding of state environmental review is narrowly focused and outdated. This paper seeks to provide information on the landscape of state environmental review policy frameworks. The paper identifies 37 states with formal environmental review requirements through a document review of state statutes, administrative rules and agency-prepared materials, and confirms this finding through a survey of state administrators. A two-tier classification is used to distinguish states based on the approach taken to address environmental review needs and the scope and depth of relevant policies and procedures implemented. This paper also provides a discussion of policy and programme attributes that may contribute to effective practice, and of the potential for adopting relevant legislation in states where environmental review is currently lacking.