Exploring the dark side of organizational citizenship behavior

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in positive organizational scholarship in general, including positive organizational behavior (POB) in particular. This work identifies organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) as a prototypical POB. Conceptualizing OCBs in this way is sensible in light of more than 30 years of research highlighting the desirable aspects of such behavior. At the same time, some researchers have raised questions about positive organizational scholarship and have called for a more balanced view of ostensibly positive behaviors. The purpose of this paper, then, is to take a more nuanced view of OCBs while highlighting the dark side of citizenship behavior. In doing so, we review conceptual and empirical work that has challenged the idea that OCBs are inherently positive. We also discuss research that seeks to develop a deeper understanding of the conditions under which OCB does more harm than good. Finally, important areas for future research and the practical realities facing scholars who seek to publish research investigating the dark side of citizenship are addressed as well. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Empowering leadership: A meta‐analytic examination of incremental contribution,mediation, and moderation

The concept of empowering leadership (EL) has seen increasing scholarly interest in recent years. This study reports a meta‐analysis investigating the effects of EL on employee work behavior. On the basis of data from 105 samples, we found evidence for the positive effects of EL on performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and creativity at both the individual and team levels. We further examined these relationships by exploring potential boundary conditions and the incremental contribution of EL over transformational leadership and leader–member exchange. Furthermore, at the individual level, both trust in leader and psychological empowerment mediated the relationships of EL with task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and creativity. We also found evidence that leader–member exchange was a significant mediator between EL and task performance. At the team level, empowerment mediated the effects of EL on team performance, whereas knowledge sharing showed no significant indirect effect. Our results have important theoretical and practical implications and suggest some areas that require further research.     

Introduction: The dark and light sides of organizational citizenship behavior

This is an introduction to a point/counterpoint exchange in Journal of Organizational Behavior on the negative versus positive sides of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Such behaviors go beyond the core tasks that individuals do on the job and are generally considered positive contributions that support organizations. Bolino, Klotz, Turnley, and Harvey cover the dark (negative) side of OCB, arguing that it can be performed for self‐serving motives and that it can have detrimental effects. They discuss the costs of performing OCB to the individuals who perform it, and potential negative consequences for organizations. Conversely, Spitzmuller and Van Dyne cover the light (positive) side, focusing on OCB as forms of either proactive or reactive helping behavior. Proactive helping is motivated by internal needs with the individual seeking out opportunities to engage in OCB. Reactive helping is an altruistic response to a perceived need by a colleague or the organization itself. Taken together, these two papers provide a comprehensive overview of the complex effects of OCB on actors who perform it and targets who receive it. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A meta‐analytic evaluation of diversity training outcomes

The purpose of this meta‐analysis was to use theory and research on diversity, attitudes, and training to examine potential differential effects on affective‐based, cognitive‐based, and skill‐based outcomes, to examine potential moderators of those effects with a focus on affective‐based outcomes, and finally, to provide quantitative estimates of these posited relationships. Results from 65 studies (N = 8465) revealed sizable effects on affective‐based, cognitive‐based, and skill‐based outcomes as well as interesting boundary conditions for these effects on affective‐based outcomes. This study provides practical value to human resources managers and trainers wishing to implement diversity training within organizations as well as interesting theoretical advances for researchers. Practitioners have quantitative evidence that diversity training changes affective‐based, cognitive‐based, and skill‐based trainee outcomes. This study also supports and addresses future research needs. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Organizational citizenship behavior in work groups: A team cultural perspective

Although researchers have often found positive relationships between organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and performance rating, very few studies have scrutinized the team contexts in which such relationships exist. This study examines how OCB influences job performance ratings within different team cultures, as measured by team collectivism and individualism. On the basis of multilevel data collected from 81 teams working at a multinational bank in Hong Kong, team collectivism and individualism were found to moderate the OCB–performance rating relationship such that OCB targeting individuals improved rated performance in highly collectivistic teams only, whereas only organizational OCB produced a significant improvement in highly individualistic teams. The implications of these findings and directions for future research directions are discussed here. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A meta‐analysis of sleep and work performance: An examination of moderators and mediators

The present study utilizes meta‐analytic techniques to examine the literature on sleep and work performance. In line with previous meta‐analytic research, results indicate that sleep and work performance have a positive relationship. However, more importantly, results from moderator analyses reveal that the type of sleep measurement (sleep quantity and sleep quality), work performance measurement (task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and counterproductive work behavior), analysis method (between‐person and within‐person), sleep report source (self‐report, other report, and objective), sleep recall window (day, week/month, and more than 1 month), and study setting (field and laboratory) differentially influence the strength of the sleep–work performance relationship. Furthermore, meta‐analytic SEM results indicate that certain mediators (affect, job attitudes, and cognitive resources) provide stronger explanations (i.e., stronger indirect effects) for the relationship between sleep and work performance, depending on the specific type of performance being examined. In general, results highlight the importance of construct operationalization and methodology decisions when conducting sleep–work performance research and provide greater insight into explanations for the relationship between sleep and work performance. Research implications, practical implications, potential limitations, and future directions are also discussed.     

The relation between emotional intelligence and job performance: A meta‐analysis

This meta‐analysis builds upon a previous meta‐analysis by (1) including 65 per cent more studies that have over twice the sample size to estimate the relationships between emotional intelligence (EI) and job performance; (2) using more current meta‐analytical studies for estimates of relationships among personality variables and for cognitive ability and job performance; (3) using the three‐stream approach for classifying EI research; (4) performing tests for differences among streams of EI research and their relationships with personality and cognitive intelligence; (5) using latest statistical procedures such as dominance analysis; and (6) testing for publication bias. We classified EI studies into three streams: (1) ability‐based models that use objective test items; (2) self‐report or peer‐report measures based on the four‐branch model of EI; and (3) “mixed models” of emotional competencies. The three streams have corrected correlations ranging from 0.24 to 0.30 with job performance. The three streams correlated differently with cognitive ability and with neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Streams 2 and 3 have the largest incremental validity beyond cognitive ability and the Five Factor Model (FFM). Dominance analysis demonstrated that all three streams of EI exhibited substantial relative importance in the presence of FFM and intelligence when predicting job performance. Publication bias had negligible influence on observed effect sizes. The results support the overall validity of EI. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Note: Correction added on 22 July 2010 after first publication online on 29 June 2010. The affiliations for Ronald H. Humphrey and Thomas H. Hawver have been corrected in this version of the article.     

Positive affectivity neutralizes transformational leadership's influence on creative performance and organizational citizenship behaviors

This study uses an interactionist approach to examine the moderating effect of follower trait positive affectivity (trait PA) on the relation between transformational leadership and both follower creative performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). On the basis of responses from 212 employees and their direct supervisors from the research and development department of a company in Mainland China, results support the hypothesized moderation effect. Specifically, the positive influence of transformational leadership on creative performance was significantly reduced for followers who were higher on trait PA (ΔR² = .02, p < .05). The same pattern, in which followers' trait PA appeared to substitute for the influence of transformational leadership, generalized to the outcome of follower OCB as well (ΔR² = .04, p < .01). We discussed theoretical and practical implications of these findings. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Transformational leadership and creativity: A meta‐analytic review and identification of an integrated model

We conduct a meta‐analytic review that yields important insights about the existing research on transformational leadership and creativity. Additionally, we propose and test an integrated model using meta‐analytic structural equation modeling (MASEM) and full information MASEM (FIMASEM) techniques to better understand the intervening mechanism through which transformational leadership acts on creativity. The results of the meta‐analysis of 127 studies show that most of the bivariate relationships among transformational leadership, employee creativity, and pre‐identified mediators are significant; further, geographic base of studies significantly moderates some of the relationships. The MASEM results indicate that several mediators intervene in the relationship between transformational leadership and creativity. Although the total effect of transformational leadership on creativity is positive, its direct effect is negative when mediators are included. Additionally, there are significant relationships among the mediators that can be theoretically supported, but have not been investigated in prior transformational leadership and creativity studies. On the basis of these findings, we provide conclusions and directions for future studies.     

Thriving at work: A meta‐analysis

Thriving at work refers to a positive psychological state characterized by a joint sense of vitality and learning. On the basis of Spreitzer and colleagues' model, we present a comprehensive meta‐analysis of antecedents and outcomes of thriving at work (K = 73 independent samples, N = 21,739 employees). Results showed that thriving at work is associated with individual characteristics, such as psychological capital (r_c = .47), proactive personality (r_c = .58), positive affect (r_c = .52), and work engagement (r_c = .64). Positive associations were also found between thriving at work and relational characteristics, including supportive coworker behavior (r_c = .42), supportive leadership behavior (r_c = .44), and perceived organizational support (r_c = .63). Moreover, thriving at work is related to important employee outcomes, including health‐related outcomes such as burnout (r_c = ?.53), attitudinal outcomes such as commitment (r_c = .65), and performance‐related outcomes such as task performance (r_c = .35). The results of relative weights analyses suggest that thriving exhibits small, albeit incremental predictive validity above and beyond positive affect and work engagement, for task performance, job satisfaction, subjective health, and burnout. Overall, the findings of this meta‐analysis support Spreitzer and colleagues' model and underscore the importance of thriving in the work context.     

A contingency model of union commitment and participation: Meta‐analysis of the antecedents of militant and nonmilitant activities

Correlation estimates from a meta‐analysis of 108 studies including 126 independent samples and nearly 70 000 participants were used to test multiple path models of the antecedents of militant and nonmilitant union participation. Variables moderating the relationship between union commitment and participation were examined. The magnitude of the relationship between commitment and militant participation was moderated by status‐based group membership (i.e., white collar versus blue collar), supporting a contingency model of union participation. Results updated and further developed an integrative model of union participation. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Leadership,followers' mental health and job performance in organizations: A comprehensive meta‐analysis from an occupational health perspective

The present meta‐analysis investigates the associations between leadership, followers' mental health, and job performance by taking into account different groups of leadership constructs including transformational leadership, relations‐oriented leadership, task‐oriented leadership, destructive leadership, and leader–member exchange. Six categories of mental health‐related outcomes are considered representing both negative and positive mental health states of followers, namely, affective symptoms, burnout, stress, well‐being, psychological functioning, and health complaints. Meta‐analytic models are used to estimate the association between these categories of leadership and mental health. Our results reveal that transformational leadership, a high quality of relations‐oriented and task‐oriented leadership behavior, as well as a high quality of leader–follower interaction are positively associated with mental health. In contrast, destructive leadership is strongly negatively associated with mental health. In addition, the mediation effects of leadership on job performance via mental health are estimated. Results partially support the mediating role of mental health concerning the relationship between leadership and job performance. Our results emphasize the importance of leadership as an occupational health factor, and they may serve as basis for the planning and designing of occupational health policies and interventions despite existing research limitations. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Employee voice behavior: A meta‐analytic test of the conservation of resources framework

Although voice (i.e. expressing change‐oriented ideas and suggestions) has frequently been investigated as a way for workers to reciprocate to their employers for the positive treatment they receive, much less is known about how workers use voice to deal with stress. This study takes a conservation of resources perspective to examine the relationships among workplace stress, voice behavior, and job performance. We first examined the strength of relationships of three major groups of workplace stressors and strains (job based, social based, and organization based) with voice behavior. We then examined the relationships of voice behavior with performance variables (e.g. in‐role performance and creativity) to investigate how voice may help workers preserve or accumulate resources to enhance their performance. The meta‐analytic findings presented here provide support for a negative relationship between workplace stress and voice and a positive relationship between voice behavior and performance outcomes. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Death awareness and organizational behavior

This Incubator introduces scholars to death awareness research. We explicate how mortality salience can be studied in conjunction with workplace behavior. Using the Terror Management Theory (TMT) framework, we explore morality salience in combination with several workplace phenomena, including aggression, discrimination, and punishment; and, several ideas for future research are suggested. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Recovery from work‐related effort: A meta‐analysis

This meta‐analytic study examines the antecedents and outcomes of four recovery experiences: psychological detachment, relaxation, mastery, and control. Using 299 effect sizes from 54 independent samples (N = 26,592), we extend theory by integrating recovery experiences into the challenge–hindrance framework, creating a more comprehensive understanding of how both after‐work recovery and work characteristics collectively relate to well‐being. The results of meta‐analytic path estimates indicate that challenge demands have stronger negative relationships with psychological detachment, relaxation, and control recovery experiences than hindrance demands, and job resources have positive relationships with relaxation, mastery, and control recovery experiences. Psychological detachment after work has a stronger negative relationship with fatigue than relaxation or control experiences, whereas control experiences after work have a stronger positive relationship with vigor than detachment or relaxation experiences. Additionally, a temporally driven model with recovery experiences as a partial mediator explains up to 62% more variance in outcomes (ΔR² = .12) beyond work characteristics models, implying that both work characteristics and after‐work recovery play an important role in determining employee well‐being.     

A meta‐analysis of the interrelationships between employee lateness,absenteeism, and turnover: Implications for models of withdrawal behavior

We meta‐analyzed the correlations between voluntary employee lateness, absenteeism, and turnover to (i) provide the most comprehensive estimates to date of the interrelationships between these withdrawal behaviors; (ii) test the viability of a withdrawal construct; and (iii) evaluate the evidence for competing models of the relationships between withdrawal behaviors (i.e., alternate forms, compensatory forms, independent forms, progression of withdrawal, and spillover model). Corrected correlations were .26 between lateness and absenteeism, .25 between absenteeism and turnover, and .01 between lateness and turnover. These correlations were even smaller in recent studies that had been carried out since the previous meta‐analyses of these relationships 15–20 years ago. The small‐to‐moderate intercorrelations are not supportive of a withdrawal construct that includes lateness, absenteeism, and turnover. These intercorrelations also rule out many of the competing models of the relationships between withdrawal behaviors, as many of the models assume all relationships will be positive, null, or negative. On the basis of path analyses using meta‐analytic data, the progression of withdrawal model garnered the most support. This suggests that lateness may moderately predict absenteeism and absenteeism may moderately predict turnover. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Best‐practice recommendations for estimating interaction effects using meta‐analysis

One of the key advantages of meta‐analysis (i.e., a quantitative literature review) over a narrative literature review is that it allows for formal tests of interaction effects—namely, whether the relationship between two variables is contingent upon the value of another (moderator) variable. Interaction effects play a central role in organizational science research because they highlight boundary conditions of a theory: Conditions under which relationships change in strength and/or direction. This article describes procedures for estimating interaction effects using meta‐analysis, distills the technical literature for a general readership of organizational science researchers, and includes specific best‐practice recommendations regarding actions researchers can take before and after data collection to improve the accuracy of substantive conclusions regarding interaction effects investigated meta‐analytically. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Transformational leadership,relationship quality,and employee performance during continuous incremental organizational change

Although transformational leadership has been investigated in connection with change at higher levels of organizations, less is known about its “in‐the‐trenches” impact. We examined relations among transformational leadership, explicit change reactions (i.e., relationship quality), change frequency, and change consequences (i.e., task performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)) during continuous incremental organizational change at lower hierarchical levels. In a sample of 251 employees and their 78 managers, analyses revealed that the quality of relationships between leaders and employees mediated the influence of transformational leadership on employee task performance and OCB. We also found that change frequency moderated the positive association of relationship quality with task performance and OCB, such that associations were stronger when change frequency was high. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Isms and schisms: A meta‐analysis of the prejudice‐discrimination relationship across racism,sexism, and ageism

Racism, sexism, and ageism persist in modern day organizations and may translate into workplace discrimination, which can undermine organizational effectiveness. We provide the first meta‐analysis comparing the relationships between these three types of prejudice (racism, sexism, and ageism) and three types of workplace discrimination (selection, performance evaluation, and opposition to diversity‐supportive policies). Across outcomes, racism was associated with workplace discrimination, whereas sexism was not. Ageism was associated with discriminatory selection and opposition to organizational policies supporting older workers; however, ageism was not related to discriminatory performance evaluation. Consistent with prior research and theory, Implicit Association Test measures were related to subtle discrimination (opposition to diversity‐supportive policies) but not deliberate discrimination (selection and performance evaluation). Finally, prejudice was more strongly associated with discrimination against real as compared with hypothetical targets. Implications for organizational researchers and practitioners are discussed. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Meta‐analytic tests of relationships between organizational justice and citizenship behavior: testing agent‐system and shared‐variance models

Research on the unique effects of different types of perceived fairness on citizenship behavior that benefits individuals (organizational citizenship behavior (OCB‐I) and organizations (OCB‐O) has produced mixed results. We assert that how OCB‐O and OCB‐I are conceptualized affects the patterns of results, and we hypothesize that, when OCB is conceptualized appropriately, an agent‐system model is supported (interactional and procedural justice are the strongest unique predictors of OCB‐I and OCB‐O, respectively). We also hypothesize that shared variance among the justice types explains additional variance in OCB. Analyses of semi‐ partial correlations conducted on meta‐analytic coefficients supported our hypotheses. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.