On-road measures of pedestrians' estimates of their own nighttime conspicuity

PROBLEM: Most pedestrian fatalities occur at night. Although researchers have long understood that drivers have difficulty seeing pedestrians at night and that reflective clothing can dramatically enhance pedestrian conspicuity, the extent to which pedestrians understand these facts is unclear. This experiment quantified pedestrians' estimates of the ability of an approaching driver to recognize the presence of roadside pedestrians. METHOD: Ten younger and 10 older participants walked in place on the far shoulder of a closed-road circuit and pressed a button when they were confident that the approaching driver could first recognize that a pedestrian was present. RESULTS: Pedestrians overestimated their visibility and dramatically underestimated the benefit of conspicuity treatments. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that pedestrians fail to understand the magnitude of the nighttime conspicuity problem and the value of conspicuity treatments. Pedestrians may therefore unknowingly place themselves in danger at night. IMPACT: These results underscore the need to educate pedestrians about the dangers of interacting with traffic at night and about treatments that increase their safety.     

New hire perceptions of their own and their employer's obligations: A study of psychological contracts

Psychological contracts are individual beliefs in reciprocal obligations between employees and employers. In a sample of 224 graduating MBA students who had recently accepted job offers, beliefs regarding employment obligations were investigated. Two types of obligation were demonstrated empirically: transactional obligations of high pay and career advancement in exchange for hard work and relational obligations exchanging job security for loyalty and a minimum length of stay. These types of obligations are connected with two forms of legal contracts: transactional and relational. Relational contract obligations for employers correlated with employee expected length of stay with the firm. Transactional contract obligations were associated with careerist motive on the part of new recruits. The relationship between these and other motives of new hires was also investigated.     

Seat belt use and fit among drivers aged 75 years and older in their own vehicles

Objective: This article aims to describe seat belt wearing patterns and quality of seat belt fit among drivers aged 75 years and older. A secondary aim is to explore associations between body shape, comfort, and seat belt use patterns.

Methods: This is an observation and survey study of a cohort of 380 drivers aged 75 years and over. During home visits, photographs were taken of the drivers in their vehicles for later analysis of belt fit and a short survey was also administered to collect demographic data and information about seat belt use and comfort. Seat belt fit and use of belt and seat accessories were analyzed from the photographs.

Results: Data from 367 participants with photographs were analyzed. Whereas 97% reported using a seat belt and 90% reported their seat belt to be comfortable, 21% reported repositioning their seat belt to improve comfort. Good sash and lap belt fit were achieved in 53 and 59% of participants, respectively, but only 35% achieved overall good fit. Both poor sash and lap belt fit were observed in 23% of participants. Drivers who were in the obese category had over twice the odds (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.2–4.1) of having a poor lap belt fit than those in the normal body mass index [BMI] range, and drivers who were overweight had 1.8 times the odds (95% CI, 1.1–2.9) of having poor lap belt fit. Older females also had twice the odds (95% CI, 1.3–3.5) of poor lap belt fit compared to older males, regardless of BMI. Sash belt fit did not vary significantly by BMI, stature, or gender. However older drivers who reported that they had not made any adjustments to the D-ring height had 1.7 times the odds of having poor sash belt fit than those who made adjustments (1.2–2.9). Females were 7.3 times more likely to report comfort problems than males (95% CI, 3.2, 16.3) but there was no association between reported comfort and BMI or seat belt fit. Drivers who reported comfort problems had 6 times the odds (3.2–13.6) of also reporting active repositioning of the belt.

Conclusions: The results suggest that older drivers face challenges in achieving comfortable and correct seat belt fit. This may have a negative impact on crash protection. Belt fit problems appear to be associated with body shape, particularly high BMI and gender. There is a need for further investigation of comfort accessories; in the interim, older drivers and occupants should be encouraged to use features such as D-ring adjusters to improve sash belt fit.     

Implementing computer-based automation in the office: A study of experienced stress

This study focuses on the impact of previous experience with automation implementations on experienced stress associated with different work aspects, following the introduction of computer-based office automation. One hundred and ninety-one full-time secretaries at a large university in Canada completed questionnaires related to stress perception and prior experience with office automation. Results indicated that those without previous experience reported higher levels of experienced stress associated with work content aspects such as task difficulty and interest in the task, whereas those with prior experience reported greater problems with contextual aspects such as training and instruction. These findings are discussed in the context of research on ‘technological change as a source of organizational and occupational stress’.     

The effect of workers' visibility on effectiveness of intervention programs: supervisory-based safety interventions

INTRODUCTION: This paper discusses an organizational change intervention program targeting safety behaviors and addresses important considerations concerning the planning of organizational change. Using layout of the plant as a proxy for ease of daily leader-member interaction, the effect of workers' visibility on the effectiveness of supervisory-based safety (SBS) interventions is examined. Through a reinforcement-learning framework, it is suggested that visibility can affect supervisors' incentive to interact with subordinates regarding safety-related issues. METHOD: Data were collected during SBS intervention studies in five manufacturing companies. RESULTS: Results suggest a reinforcement cycle model whereby increased visibility generates more frequent exchanges between supervisors and employees, resulting in improved safety behavior among employees. In turn, employees' safer behavior reinforces continued supervisory safety-related interaction. CONCLUSION AND IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: Visibility is an important moderator in supervisory based safety interventions, and can serve to increase workplace safety. Implications of these findings for safety are discussed.     

Evaluation of a high visibility enforcement project focused on passenger vehicles interacting with commercial vehicles

Introduction

In 2004, Washington State applied NHTSA's High Visibility Enforcement model used in the Click It or Ticket seat belt campaign in an attempt to reduce unsafe driving behaviors around commercial motor vehicles (CMVs). The program was called Ticketing Aggressive Cars and Trucks (TACT). This paper details the methods used to evaluate the program's effectiveness and the results of the evaluation.

Method

Four high-crash interstate highway corridors, each approximately 25 miles in length, were selected. Two of these corridors received TACT media messages and increased enforcement over an 18-month period while two comparison corridors did not receive any increased media or enforcement.

Results

A total of 4,737 contacts were made with drivers during the two enforcement waves, and 72% of these contacts led to a citation. Drivers at the intervention sites who said they saw or heard any of the TACT messages increased from 17.7% in the pre period to a high of 67.3% in the post periods. Drivers at the intervention sites also reported increased exposure to the core message of leaving more space when passing trucks (14% pre to 40% post period). The percentage of drivers who said they leave more room when passing trucks than when passing cars rose from 16% in the pre period to 24% in the post period at the intervention sites, while comparison sites showed no change. Over 150 hours of video recorded by law enforcement officers in unmarked vehicles were utilized to examine violation rates and severity of violations before and after the intervention campaigns. Statistical analyses showed that violation rates were reduced significantly at the intervention sites (between 23% and 46%), while remaining constant at the comparison sites. Analyses of the video data also showed that the seriousness of the residual violations at the intervention sites decreased.

Conclusions

Overall, the evaluation results provide a consistent picture of the effectiveness of the TACT pilot project. Success was demonstrated at every step - messages were received and understood, knowledge was changed in the intended direction, self reported driving behavior around large trucks improved, and observed driving behaviors confirmed the self reports.

Impact on Industry

After this initial success in Washington State, the TACT model will continue to be implemented and evaluated by FMCSA in an attempt to validate the program. Based on the results of this study and the consistent positive results found for other sTEP projects, it is likely that TACT will show continued success in a variety of settings and will help reduce the number and severity of crashes involving CMVs. Future research should attempt to use many of the methods described here to further validate the methods for not only evaluations of TACT programs, but also for any other highway safety programs that require measurements of the program's effectiveness.     

高可视性警示服的安全防护作用及其标准分析

本文通过对高可视性警示服安全防护作用的理论分析,进一步论证了GB20653-2006《职业用高可视性警示服》中对高可视性警示服安全防护性能要求的科学性和重要性,为高可视性警示服的生产、使用、监督检验和规范化管理提供科学依据。     

High visibility safety apparel and nighttime conspicuity of pedestrians in work zones

PROBLEM: Every year numerous occupational fatalities result from pedestrians being struck by motor vehicles intruding into work zones. METHOD: Attributes of retroreflective personal safety garments on pedestrian conspicuity at night were assessed in a field study. Using instrumented vehicles on a closed track, participants drove through simulated work zones attempting to detect pedestrians located in the work zones. RESULTS: Configuration of the retroreflective trim, trim color, placement in the work zone, and driver age significantly affected pedestrian conspicuity. Intensity and the amount of retroreflective trim did not. DISCUSSION: Personal safety garments incorporating retroreflective trim significantly improve pedestrian conspicuity in work zones. SUMMARY: The results emphasize the importance of retroreflective trim on personal safety garments, particularly if the trim is located on garment sleeves. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: We examine the design attributes that contribute to making a personal safety garment conspicuous. The results have implications regarding preferred garment designs, industry standards, and service life of personal safety garments.     

Learning disability and leadership: Becoming an effective leader

This study investigates learning disability (LD) as an individual‐differences variable predicting leadership emergence, role occupancy, and effectiveness. We hypothesize that individuals with LD are less likely to occupy leadership roles, and that informal group processes (leadership emergence) will mediate the relationship between LD and leadership role occupancy. We also hypothesized that, among leaders promoted and selected for leadership training, there would be a negative relationship between LD and effective leadership. We first checked for LD in a sample of 1076 soldiers, measuring cognitive ability with a geometric‐analogies test as a control. Some months later, during the soldiers' basic training, we measured leadership emergence. We then identified those who were selected for leadership training, recording, and measuring their effectiveness according to supervisory and peer evaluations. Leadership emergence was found to mediate the negative relationship between LD and leadership role occupancy. There were no significant differences among leaders (n = 308) with and without LD in regard to leadership effectiveness. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Work values: A theoretical overview and a model of their effects

Three main streams of research were identified in the field of work values. Based on a series of analyses using multidimensional techniques, the first set of studies attempted to identify the underlying factors or facets of the work values domain. A second group of investigations examined correlates of work values including antecedent and consequent variables. Finally, extensive research on differences in work values' pattern and level by culture have been reported. For purposes of integrating the diverse findings, the basic facets of the work values domain were identified and a model of their effects on behavior was suggested     

The effect of earned and paid media strategies in high visibility enforcement campaigns

The primary objective of this paper is to describe the impact of national seat belt enforcement mobilizations in terms of changes in public awareness, perceptions, and opinions as they relate to Operation ABC (Always Buckle Up). In order to monitor changes in public awareness and perceptions, a number of national telephone surveys were conducted. Survey results indicated that the following characteristics were associated with lower self-reported seat belt use rates: (a) males; (b) 18-34 age group; (c) persons with lower income; (d) persons with lower education; (e) persons living in rural areas; (f) residents of the Northeast, Midwest, and Great Lakes; (g) residents of states with secondary enforcement laws; and (h) persons less likely to read a newspaper and more likely to listen to the radio. Telephone surveys also suggested that the following groups are more likely to fail to properly secure a child under 12: (a) persons who say they have problems securing a child in seat belt; (b) farm belt residents; (c) Hispanic and Latinos; (d) persons who indicate that they always wear a seat belt but indicate they have not in the past month; (e) persons with older vehicles; (f) lower income respondents; (g) residents of the Deep South; (h) internet non-users; and (i) urban men. These findings provide support for some basic guidelines and suggestions for conducting seat belt enforcement activities.     

Lifting technique and abdominal belt usage: a biomechanical, physiological and subjective investigation

Some 10 male subjects carried out a repetitive lifting task for 15 min under four conditions on separate days. Subjects used either a squat lifting or a stoop lifting technique with or without an abdominal belt on each day. Measurements of spinal shrinkage, heart rate, perceived exertion and regional body pain were made under each condition. Although there was a significant difference in spinal shrinkage under all lifting conditions compared with shrinkage during 15 min of quiet standing (4.36 ± 2.24 vs. 1.13 ± 1.18 mm), there were no significant differences in shrinkage between the conditions. The subjects' heart rates were higher during the squat lift than the stoop lift (123 vs. 97 beats/min; p < 0.001). While the squat lift was perceived to be the safest lift by 90% of the subjects, 60% regarded this lift as the least preferred method (with or without the belt). Although all 10 subjects perceived the safest lifting method to involve the use of the belt, 50% rated the belt as their least preferred lifting condition. The findings cast doubt on the efficacy and acceptability of both abdominal belts and the practice of training workers in ‘safe’ lifting techniques and indicate that individual characteristics and preferences need to be considered when attempting to improve the safety of manual handling operations in industry.     

能见度对个体疏散速度及路径选择的影响研

为提供火灾条件下人员疏散基础数据,基于4层教学楼疏散平台,开展了不同能见度环境下个体疏散实验,研究了能见度对人员疏散速度及路径选择的影响。研究结果表明:正常能见度条件下,人员的平均疏散速度为（2.37±0.23）m/s,个体间疏散速度差异明显,随着能见度降低,人员的平均疏散速度呈现均匀下降趋势,个体疏散速度最终均趋近于（0.36±0.10）m/s;人员水平疏散速度显著大于下行疏散速度,且水平疏散速度受能见度影响更大;当能见度较高时,人员以视觉作为寻路方式,倾向于选择自己最熟悉的路线进行疏散;能见度较低时,人员主要依靠触觉作为寻路方式,即借助墙或楼梯扶手进行疏散,此时人员的路径选择受到周围围挡物的共同作用。     

矿山救援队自身伤亡事故新特点及防治对策

为有效防止矿山救援队自身伤亡事故,通过统计1953-2013年期间的81例矿山救援队自身伤亡事故,研究其新特点与防治对策。结果表明:矿井火灾和爆炸事故救援始终是诱发救援队自身伤亡事故可能性最大的救灾作业类型,近年来这一特点更为明显,且火灾事故救援诱发瓦斯爆炸也成为导致自身伤亡的重要特征。因此,强化救援小队管理,改善救援技术与装备,重视预防性安全检查,提升应急决策与指挥的合理性,保障应急处置的安全并重点提高火灾与爆炸事故应急处置能力,是预防矿山救援自身伤亡事故的必要手段。     

Information presentation compatibility in a simple digital control panel design: eye-tracking study

Various designs of typical digital control panels were analyzed experimentally from both the effectiveness and efficiency points of view. Subjects performed information comparison tasks aimed at keeping vehicle velocity at the same level. The experiment involved two versions of speedometers for displaying current and target velocities (clock-face and digital). The stimuli were also differentiated by the target velocity value (20, 50 and 80?km/h) and the correct response type (increase or decrease). Subjects’ performance results along with the eye-tracking data were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed for all 24 experimental conditions.     

Risk-mitigating beliefs,risk estimates,and self-reported speeding in a sample of Australian drivers

PROBLEM: Research suggests that people who engage in risk-taking behaviors often hold specific beliefs that can mitigate or reduce their perceptions of risk associated with those behaviors. METHOD: A scale was developed (Speeding Risk Belief Scale (SRBS)) to assess beliefs about speeding-related risk and predict self-reported speeding in a random-digit telephone survey of 800 South Australian drivers between the ages of 16 and 50. RESULTS: The scale was internally consistent, and path analyses showed it to be associated with self-reported speeding, both directly and indirectly through participants' estimates of speeding-related risk. DISCUSSION: Origins of risk-mitigating beliefs and the extent to which they may be causally linked with speeding are discussed, and recommendations are made for future research. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: This research has strong implications for the conduct of countermeasure campaigns that disseminate information on speeding-related risk.     

Inflation of subordinates' performance ratings: main and interactive effects of rater negative affectivity,documentation of work behavior,and appraisal visibility

We hypothesized that raters' tendency to deliberately inflate performance appraisal ratings of subordinates would be associated with rater negative affectivity (NA) and two characteristics of the performance appraisal context: documentation of subordinates' work behaviors and appraisal visibility. We further hypothesized interactions among these variables, such that high‐NA, but not low‐NA raters, would be more likely to inflate ratings under conditions of low documentation and high appraisal visibility. Moreover, we predicted that NA would be associated most strongly with rating inflation when documentation was low and appraisal visibility was high, simultaneously. Results from a sample of 148 supervisors from a variety of organizations supported these hypotheses. We discuss several practical implications of the results and suggest areas for future inquiry. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Designing effective diversity training: influence of group composition and trainee experience

Despite the popularity of diversity training in corporate America, a lack of systematic evaluation has left managers with little guidance on how to design effective diversity training programmes. In this research, we examine how training group composition and trainee experience interact to influence the effects of diversity training on cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes. Results indicate that trainees with prior experience with diversity training responded most positively to training groups homogeneous with respect to racioethnicity and nationality; trainees without prior experience with diversity training were generally unaffected by training group composition. The implications of these findings for the design of diversity training programmes in organizations and future research on diversity training are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Airline Lifesaver: a 17-year analysis of a technique to prompt the delivery of a safety message

INTRODUCTION: The Airline Lifesaver (AL) is a 13.3 cm x 9.8 cm card any passenger can deliver to the attendant of a commercial airline in order to prompt the delivery of an important safety message. In particular, the AL requests the following safety--belt reminder be added to the regular announcements given at the end of the flight-"Now that you have worn a seat belt for the safest part of your trip, the flight crew would like to remind you to buckle-up during your ground transportation." METHOD: The AL card was handed to 1,258 flight attendants over a 17-year period and compliance with the request for the safety message was systematically tracked. Slightly more than one-third of the AL cards (n=460) included an incentive for making the announcement. RESULTS: Without the incentive, compliance to give the buckle-up reminder was 35.5% of 798 flights. With the incentive, compliance was significantly higher (i.e., 53.3%). IMPACT: The validity of the AL intervention is discussed with regard to its: (a) relevance to cognitive dissonance and consistency theory, and (b) broad-based applicability as a component of community-wide efforts to facilitate a safety-focused culture. The 17-year study also demonstrated a practical and cost-effective application of a behavior-based incentive program.