A numerical model to simulate smouldering fires in bulk materials and dust deposits

A numerical model is presented which consists of a set of partial differential equations for the transport of heat and mass fractions of eight chemical species to describe the onset of self-ignition and the propagation of smouldering fires in deposits of bulk materials or dust accumulations. The chemical reaction sub-model includes solid fuel decomposition and the combustion of char, carbon monoxide and hydrogen.The model has been validated against lab-scale self-ignition and smouldering propagation experiments and then applied to predictions of fire scenarios in a lignite coal silo. Predicted reaction temperatures of 550 K and propagation velocities of the smouldering front of about 6 mm/h are in good agreement with experimental values derived from lab-scale experiments.     

The influence of initial conditions on the propagation of smouldering fires in dust accumulations

A mathematical model is presented which allows one to treat the combined phenomena of heat, mass and species transfer by diffusion as they occur within smouldering fires in accumulations of dust or other solid bulk materials. The model was applied to predict self-ignition temperatures of five different dusts, where it could be shown that computed and experimental self-ignition temperatures coincide within an error margin of ±5%.

For smouldering fires, if initiated by either self-ignition or an ignition source, it could be shown that the temperature and the velocity at which the reaction front propagates both depend on the volume of the dust accumulation. In addition, the propagation velocity increases when the initial temperature of the dust accumulation is increased and decreases when the initial moisture content of the dust accumulation is increased.

Comparisons of the numerical model with experiments show that the smouldering propagation is mirrored qualitatively, while the accuracy of the computations strongly depends on the accuracy of the input parameters, namely on the apparent activation energy.     

通风开口对轰燃影响的数值模拟

轰燃是建筑火灾中的一个重要的火现象,室内局部火的发展过程中,热烟气向水源基底辐射,在一定条件下会产生正反馈,导致热烟气温度和火源释放速率急剧增加,从而转变成遍及整个房间的大火,轰燃的产生与否受到很多因素的影响,尝试利用CFAST对轰燃现象进行数值模拟,讨论了不同的通风开口条件对轰燃发生时热烟气温度和热释放速率的影响,计算机结果表明,当开口面积固定时,竖直开口比水平开口需要更大的火源释热速率,另外也指明了,多数情况下用CFAST对轰燃进行计算是可能的,但在某些临界条件下计算会终止。     

小尺度森林火灾的渐近幂律分布

森林火灾系统是一个自组织临界性系统，它的表现之一就是火灾的尺度分布满足幂律规律。然而实际数据分析表明，在尺度最大和最小的两个区域，火灾分布与幂律规律存在较大的差异。对小尺度火灾的偏离现象，研究者通常猜测是由于小面积火灾记录数据遗漏较多造成的，目前尚没有一个理论上的依据，而小尺度火灾的分布规律对大尺度火灾的预测起看关键作用。为了解释这种偏离现象，该文将火灾看作一个生灭过程，并对火灾蔓延和熄灭的机理进行了分析，最终得到了森林火灾分布与火灾尺度的定量依赖关系及其机理。将该文的结果与日本近年来全国范围内的森林火灾统计数据进行了对比，表明该文得到的结果与真实数据得到较好符合，并且成功解释了小尺度森林火灾分布与幂律关系的偏离现象。该研究可望对深入认识火灾系统的自组织临界性和防治火灾具有一定的实际意义。     

住宅建筑火灾财产损失影响因素及其实证研究

本研究目的在于通过实证研究确定影响住宅建筑火灾财产损失的关键因素.通过文献回顾,本文提出从居民、建筑物、消防抢救力量和火灾强度四个维度对研究命题展开讨论,构建了住宅建筑火灾财产损失影响因素模型.作者对84户受灾居民进行了问卷调查,并运用主成分因子分析和多元回归方法分析了有效数据,结果发现火灾强度、建筑结构、防火习惯、日常管理、消防设施和室外环境是导致住宅建筑火灾财产损失的关键因素.     

MODIS林火识别算法的验证分析

利用中国境内9起森林火灾事件对MODIS火点识别的理论算法进行验证分析．结果表明：MODIS火点识别的理论算法在中国境内是基本通用的．但受地域和季节变化的影响．应用时可能会遗漏个别低温闷烧的热点;利用火点亮温偏离统计均值标准差的关系来确定阁值．可以避免火点的遗漏;林火点在CH21和CH22上的值比较接近。一般有CH21-CH22〈20K。而噪声点在两个波段上的亮温差异比较大。根据以上知识．提出了改进MODIS林火热点识别算法的建议。     

Characteristics of large cooking oil pool fires and their extinguishment by water mist

Large cooking oil pool fires, occurring in industrial oil cookers, present a severe hazard to food processing plants due to their size and the large amount of hot oil involved. This paper reports a series of full-scale fire experiments conducted in a large industrial oil cooker mock-up. The characteristics of large cooking oil pool fires and the effect of oil depth and hood position in the oil cooker on fire growth were studied. The use of water mist for extinguishing large oil pool fires and their extinguishing performance under different discharge pressure and with different types of water mist systems were investigated. Experimental results showed that the cooking oil underwent a substantial expansion in volume during heating. The fires developed quickly once the oil auto-ignited. The fire growth rate was affected by the oil depth in the pan and the hood position in the oil cooker. The water mist fire suppression systems effectively extinguished large cooking oil fires and prevented them from re-igniting. Their extinguishing performance was determined by the type of water mist system, discharge pressure and hood position in the oil cooker.     

An experimental study on the burning rate of a continuously released n-heptane spill fire on an open water surface

Spill fires are common during oil product storage and transportation after a loss of containment. Since the burning fuel is moving and the fuel depth is quite shallow, the burning rate in a spill fire is different from that of a pool fire with a static burning zone. Unlike pool fires, which have been studied for decades and have well-established correlations for burning rate, research on spill fires is inadequate. In this paper, continuously released n-heptane spill fire experiments were conducted on open water surfaces with varying fuel discharge rates. The pool diameters were measured, and the spill fire burning rates were estimated based on a dynamic balance between fuel supply and combustion. The burning rates in n-heptane pool fires from the literature were reviewed and compared with the estimated burning rates in spill fires of the same dimension. The spill fire burning rate was found to be close to that in a pool fire during the initial burning phase but lower than that in a bulk burning pool fire and that in a “fuel-level-controlled” pool fire. The distinction between the burning rates of spill fires and pool fires is explained by the heat balance analysis of the fuel layer. A model for the spill fire burning rate was proposed accordingly. The results calculated with the presented model are closer to the measured data than those calculated with pool fire models.     

Metal hydride fires and fire suppression agents

Most metal hydrides are pyrophoric and water-reactive. Summaries of metal hydride fire incidents are presented to illustrate ignition scenarios, threats to personnel and equipment, and fire suppression experiences. Met-L-X™, a sodium chloride-based, certified, Class D fire suppression agent, has successfully extinguished some metal hydride fires by coating the hydride and excluding air access. However, the still hot hydride is prone to re-ignition upon surface disturbance, such as may be necessary during disposal. Previously reported testing of various Class D agents and moist sand for sodium hydride fires is reviewed here along with certification and ad hoc testing of existing Class D agents and recent testing of a new candidate Class D agent. Hydride explosibility testing is also briefly summarized. Additional fire and explosibility tests, as well as suppression agent reactivity evaluations, are recommended.     

双火源对隧道火灾临界风速影响的数值研究

为研究双火源隧道火灾所需临界风速的变化规律,利用火灾动力学软件FDS模拟了三种双火源隧道火灾,即两等火源功率的火灾、上风流火源功率较大火灾、上风流火源功率较小火灾。根据各火灾情景下所得临界风速u_(cr),分析两火源距离d、火源功率、上下风流位置关系对临界风速u_(cr)的影响规律。结果表明:随着两火源距离d的增加,所需临界风速u_(cr)逐渐减小,当两者达到临界距离d_x时,临界风速u_(cr)为稳定值,该值由两火源上下风流位置关系和总火源功率共同决定;同种双火源火灾随着总火源功率增大,所需的临界风速u_(cr)增大;随着两火源间距离d增大,各双火源火灾所需临界风速u_(cr)的减小幅度不同;两火源距离d为零时,所需临界风速u_(cr)略大于同火源功率的单火源火灾所需的临界风速。     

圆柱钝体绕流火焰旋涡特性研究

在森林火灾中各种旋涡大量存在。本文着重研究圆柱钝体绕流火焰旋涡的形成机理和特征。通过各种实验手段观测火焰在圆柱钝体周围的动态结构变化，建立了涡核半径的模型公式。实验结果同时表明，在低能量火的情形下圆柱钝体的存在使得火蔓延速率下降，因而提出一个新的阻力因子模型以修正顺流燃烧蔓延速率。     

室内火灾喷出和旋转火焰的实验和数值模拟

喷出火焰和旋转火焰是室内火灾火焰的两种常见存在形式。利用小规模室内火灾试验装置和FDS软件,对室内火灾喷出火焰和旋转火焰进行了实验模拟和数值模拟;根据模拟结果,提出了小规模室内火灾条件下喷出火焰根部温度估算公式,分析了室内火灾火焰旋转的机理及其引起热烟气层温度、地板辐射热通量等参数升高的原因。     

基于风暴识别算法的森林火灾识别

采用风暴识别算法对森林火灾进行了识别。首先根据参数阈值调整后的风暴识别算法,得到二维分量,结合不同云回波与火灾回波的差异,对火灾回波进行识别。根据算法对浙江省温州市三次森林火灾过程进行识别,结果显示:对于三次火灾过程都能够有效识别。对于火灾发生初期和熄灭时,由于回波强度较弱,回波结构松散,与小范围弱回波混合,导致漏识别。当回波中存在小范围地物杂波时,由于其尺度与小面积火灾接近,最终导致误识别。在森林火灾发生时,该算法可以帮助识别发生火灾的位置,为消防人员提供及时可靠的火灾地点及起火时间。     

西藏森林火灾时空分布规律研究

根据1992～2005年西藏藏族自治区森林火灾统计,分析了森林火灾发生的时间和空间规律.森林火灾的年际间波动较大,2001以来火灾次数呈明显的上升趋势,但主要是火警次数增多.西藏的森林火灾主要发生在春季和冬季,特别是12月～翌年5月,2月和3月份的森林火灾最为严重.从森林火灾的空间分布来看,森林火灾主要发生在藏东南地区,特别是芒康、察隅、林芝和米林等县的森林火灾较多.引起森林火灾的火源主要是由生产用火和生活用火引起的.文中还对西藏森林火灾发生的火环境进行了分析,气候特点和可燃物分布特征决定了西藏的森林防火期为冬春季,火灾多发生在海拔2800 m～3600 m的阳坡针叶林和阔叶林中,以地表火最多,大多火场面积少于10 hm2.根据西藏森林火灾的发生特点,建议今后在防火基础建设、火源管理、可燃物管理、林火预防和扑救等方面加强工作,提高森林防火的能力.     

细水雾抑制渔船早期火灾模拟实验研究

针对渔船火灾危险性进行分析,辨识火灾危险源,通过实验模拟横向对比几种灭火介质的灭火效果。实验中以柴油油盘火模拟渔船早期火灾,并根据发动机舱的特点设置了喷雾火模拟发动机舱火灾,并通过对比几种不同灭火剂的灭火效果得出细水雾灭火有效性能良好,具有应用于实践的可行性,在渔船灭火技术应用中前景广阔的结论。     

Theoretical analysis and experimental study on critical conditions of backdraft

Backdraft is one of the most special behaviors of enclosure fires which has strong characteristics of concealment and suddenness. Once backdraft occurs in an enclosure, the fire will quickly engulf the entire enclosure and create a huge extrusive fireball out of the openings. In such circumstance, it is very difficult for people inside to evacuate and firefighters to enter to perform rescue. That’s why backdraft usually leads to serious consequences in both industrial and civil building fires. Experimental investigations on backdraft in enclosure fires caused by solid fuels have been carried out in the study, and the backdraft phenomenon has been reproduced in the small-scale enclosure fire tests. Based on the theories of heat transfer and fire dynamics, the theoretical model of conditions that backdraft occurs in enclosure fires has been established and the critical condition expressions have been deduced. Combining the results of theoretical analyses with those of experimental studies, a new backdraft criterion expressed by β, which is the ration between the combustible gas volume fraction and the lower explosive limit of the mixture, has been put forward.     

医院手术室火灾预防应对策略研究

随着可燃性吸入麻醉药、激光及电凝电切设备在医院手术室内的广泛应用,发生在医院手术室内的火灾具有其特殊性.一旦发生火灾时,对于正在接受手术的患者而言,由于其处于全麻或局麻的非全清醒状态,意识及行动高度受限,可能对其造成极度其严重的伤害.因此,控制手术室内火灾和爆炸危险对于手术室工作人员极为重要.     

利用直升飞机进行森林防火的研究——水用于防止落叶被点燃的方法

每年世界上都会发生大量森林火灾.虽然森林火灾对自然环境造成严重破坏,但现有的火灾防治措施仍不足以防止火灾发生.山区大的绿化区常常在强干燥空气条件下由于火蔓延的作用而被毁灭.很多案例中,尽管消防部门直升飞机和一般飞机被投入使用,仍需要花费很长时间来抑制大规模森林火灾.燃烧的木块可以很容易从下风方向的山脊越过山谷,并在强风作用下广为散播.因此,如何阻止由于燃烧木块而引发的快速火蔓延,是非常重要的研究课题.通常,当燃烧木块在新的地点点燃当地可燃物的初期,火势还是相对微弱的,尺寸也很小,因此,有可能可以在火灾早期借助直升飞机或一般飞机来以水攻火.本文的目标,就是研究在燃烧木块到达的下风区利用直升飞机和一般飞机中的水的方法.本文通过实验室实验和计算机模拟研究了阻止火从一个山脊蔓延到另一个下风方向的山脊的有效方法.     

Improved models of failure time for atmospheric tanks under the coupling effect of multiple pool fires

Fire accidents of chemical installations may cause domino effects in atmospheric tank farms, where a large amount of hazardous substances are stored or processed. Pool fire is a major form of fire accidents, and the thermal radiation from pool fire is the primary hazard of domino accidents. The coupling of multiple pool fires is a realistic and important accident phenomenon that enhances the propagation of domino accidents. However, previous research has mostly focused on the escalation of domino accidents induced by a single pool fire. To overcome the drawback, in this study, the failure of a storage tank under the coupling effect of multiple pool fires was studied in view of spatial and temporal synergistic process. The historical accident statistics indicated that the accident scenario of two-pool fires accounted for 30.6% in pool fires. The domino accident scenario involving three tanks is analyzed, and the typical layout of tanks is isosceles right triangle based on Chinese standard “GB50341-2014”. The thermal response and damage of a target tank heated by pool fires were numerically investigated. The volume of 500 m³, 3000 m³, 5000 m³ and 10000 m³ were selected. Flame temperature was obtained by FDS, and then was input onto the finite element model. The temperature field and stress field of target tanks were simulated by ABAQUS. The results showed that the temperature rise rate of the target tanks under multiple pool fires was higher than that under a single pool fire. The failure time of the tank under the coupling effect of multiple fires was lower than that under the superposition of multiple fires without the first stage. The stress and yield strength were compared to judge the failure of the target tank. The model of failure time for the tank under the coupling effect of pool fires was established. Through the verification, the deviation of this model is 4.02%, which is better than the deviation of 15.76% with Cozzani's model.     

近年我国家装材料变化对住宅火灾的影响研究

住宅火灾危险性和家装材料有着紧密联系。为研究近年我国家装材料变化对住宅火灾的影响,调研了近30年我国家装材料的变化趋势,分析了常见家装材料的火灾特性变化,并完成了对不同年代常见家装材料组合的火灾危险性综合评价,结果表明：随着近30年家装材料的变化,软体家具、木质家具、地板和壁纸的燃烧性能均有所改善,但软体家具产烟能力恶化;2000年～2010年合成材料的应用使得家装材料组合的综合火灾危险性有所提升,引起大型亡人火灾的可能性更大;2010年后阻燃材料的普及使得家装材料组合的综合火灾危险性有所降低,对消防安全的作用已经凸显,但同时我国住宅火灾中“小火亡人”事故可能更为频发,未来研究应该更加关注于降低阻燃材料的烟气危害性。