Values,rules and knowledge: Adaptation as change in the decision context

Responding to global change represents an unprecedented challenge for society. Decision makers tend to address this challenge by framing adaptation as a decision problem, whereby the responses to impacts of change are addressed within existing decision processes centred on defining the decision problem and selecting options. However, this ‘decision-making perspective’ is constrained by societal values and principles, regulations and norms and the state of knowledge. It is therefore unsuitable for addressing complex, contested, cross-scale problems. In this paper we argue that simply broadening the decision-making perspective to account for institutions and values is not enough. We contend the decision-making perspective needs to be connected with a broader ‘decision-context perspective’ that focuses on how the societal system of decision processes affects the manner in which a particular problem is addressed. We describe the decision context as an interconnected system of values, rules and knowledge (vrk). The interaction of systems of vrk both creates and limits the set of practical, permissible decisions; the types of values, rules and knowledge that influence the decision and the capacity for change and transformation in the decision context. We developed a framework to analyse the interactions between values, rules and knowledge and their influence on decision making and decision contexts of adaptation initiatives, and applied it retrospectively to three projects on adaptation to sea-level rise. Our analysis revealed: (1) specific examples of how interactions between vrk systems constrained existing framings of decision making and the development of options for coastal adaptation; (2) limitations in the adaptive management strategies that underpinned the projects and (3) how the linked systems of vrk can allow adaptation practitioners to structure adaptation as a process of co-evolutionary change that enables a broader set of social issues and change processes to be considered. Adaptation projects that focus on the decision context represent a pragmatic alternative to existing decision-focused adaptation. By using the vrk model to diagnose constraints in decision processes, we show how the reframing of adaptation initiatives can reveal new approaches to developing adaptation responses to complex global change problems.     

Contribution to advances in waste-to-energy technologies

This paper presents a number of recent advances in technologies and improvements in units for the thermal processing of municipal solid waste (MSW) and various other types of waste. The focus is on the ‘waste-to-energy’ approach; various criteria for this approach are discussed, as well as the inconsistent attitudes about waste management approaches that are present in various countries in the European Union. The presented achievements include low-NO_x burners, improved efficiency, heat exchangers, waste heat recovery systems, newly developed equipment for wet scrubbing, dioxin filters and systems for the treatment of sewage sludge.A new concept for a regional Waste-to-Energy Centre (WTEC) is outlined, the design of which is based on a combination of experience, know-how and a sophisticated approach. The proposed WTEC will use up-to-date technologies and will provide an adequate response to the growing population and rising standards of living as well to increasingly stringent environmental regulatory standards.Utilization of computational methods such as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for design optimisation and/or for troubleshooting is demonstrated with examples (flue gas duct, burner, combustion chamber). Several examples from industrial applications are summarized.     

A new tool to map the major worldviews in the Netherlands and USA,and explore how they relate to climate change

For addressing climate change, public support for changes in policy is needed, as well changes in individual lifestyles. Both of these appear to be intimately related with people’s worldviews. Understanding these worldviews is therefore essential. In order to research and ‘map’ them, we translated the theoretical ‘Integrative Worldview Framework’ (IWF) into an empirical, quantitative approach. We constructed a worldview-scale aiming to distinguish between four major worldviews – labeled traditional, modern, postmodern, and integrative – and explored their interface with opinions and behaviors with respect to climate change. The survey was conducted with representative samples of citizens in the Netherlands and the USA (n = 527 and n = 556). The hypothesized worldviews were found in the data with a reasonable degree of reliability, especially in the Dutch sample. We also found consistent relationships between these worldview-clusters and a range of opinions, political priorities, and behaviors. In both countries postmoderns and integratives displayed significantly more concern about climate change as well as more sustainable behaviors, compared with moderns and traditionals. The implications of these findings for environmental policy and social science are noteworthy.     

Exploring public perceptions of solutions to tree diseases in the UK: Implications for policy-makers

Tree diseases are on the increase in many countries and the implications of their appearance can be political, as well as ecological and economic. Preventative policy approaches to tree diseases are difficult to formulate because dispersal pathways for pest and pathogens are numerous, poorly known and likely to be beyond human management control. Genomic techniques could offer the quickest and most predictable approach to developing a disease tolerant native ash.The population of European Ash (Fraxinus Excelsior) has suffered major losses in the last decade, due to the onset of Hymenoscyphus fraxineus (previously called Chalara Fraxinea) commonly known in the UK as ash dieback. This study presents evidence on the public acceptability of tree-breed solutions to the spread of Chalara, with the main aim to provide science and policy with an up-stream ‘steer’ on the likely public acceptability of different tree breeding solutions. The findings showed that whilst there was a firm anti-GM and ‘we shouldn’t tamper with nature’ attitude among UK publics, there was an equally firm and perhaps slightly larger pragmatic attitude that GM (science and technology) should be used if there is a good reason to do so, for example if it can help protect trees from disease and help feed the world. The latter view was significantly stronger among younger age groups (Millennials), those living in urban areas and when the (GM)modified trees were destined for urban and plantation, rather than countryside settings. Overall, our findings suggest that the UK government could consider genomic solutions to tree breeding with more confidence in the future, as large and influential publics appear to be relaxed about the use of genomic techniques to increase tolerance of trees to disease.     

Stimulating learning and innovation in networks for regional sustainable development: the role of local authorities

Inter-organizational collaboration in networks and partnerships is supposed to promote the potential for learning and innovation needed for environmental transformation and sustainable development. This paper aims at exploring the roles of local authorities (LAs) in actor-networks related to regional sustainable development, and examining their potential in stimulating learning and innovation related to sustainable development. From empirical case studies it is suggested that LAs can act as ‘teachers’ or ‘tutors’ in the networks. From further analysis, drawing also from literature on partnerships, innovation management, socio-technical change, and educational science, it is proposed that in the short run both the ‘teacher’ and ‘tutor’ approach would promote incremental innovation rather than the radical system innovations needed for sustainable development. However, there is potential for stimulating more long-term, radical change if the LA takes on the role of a ‘teacher’. This approach may favour close collaboration in long-lived, multi-actor networks with potential to (i) serve as forum for continuous dialogue on sustainable development at a community level, (ii) stimulate experimentation and learning needed for system innovations, and (iii) provide a basis for strategic niche management for development and testing of new technologies.     

IMPASEA: A methodological framework to monitor and assess the socioeconomic effects of marine protected areas. An English Channel case study

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are increasingly regarded as socio-ecological systems. In addition to their reported ecological effects, MPAs may have important social, economic and cultural effects on local communities and marine and coastal stakeholders. Those effects should be considered within an ecosystem approach to MPA planning, designation and management. Here we present a new framework to monitor and assess the socioeconomic effects of MPAs saliently and soundly: the Integrated MPA Socio-Economic Assessment (IMPASEA). The IMPASEA considers and analyses those factors deemed most important for marine and coastal stakeholders in a spatially referenced, sound and cost-effective manner. The development of the IMPASEA followed a mixed-methods research design in 3 phases: literature review, stakeholder survey and geo-statistical analysis using a Multiple-Paired-Before-After-Control-Impact design (MPBACI). The framework was tested on a set of 6 multiple-use MPAs on the French side of the English Channel. Of the eight socioeconomic variables analysed at the scale of ‘commune’ in the geo-statistical phase, only one variable (‘number of hotel rooms’) might have been affected by the designation of MPAs. Factors such as MPA designation category and management status are likely to have contributed to the non-significant differences shown at the scale of commune for the selected MPAs. In contrast, most of the six variables related to fishing showed differences between ports inside and outside MPAs, although these results need further ground truthing to discriminate attribution of effects. The characteristics of the IMPASEA make it a sound monitoring and assessment framework that could be applied in different contexts and to different types of sustainability assessments involving protected areas or other spatially-defined entities under certain conditions: existence of consistent time series of fine-scale socioeconomic data and avoidance of overlap of designation categories over single spaces.     

The conception of public interest in Dutch flood risk management: Untouchable or transforming?

The governance of flood risks varies considerably in different parts of the world. Obviously this is due to the nature and characteristics of flood risks, but in part governance approaches vary because of political differences in the nature of governance itself. What is ‘appropriate’ in this respect depends partly on the prevailing conceptions of the public interest in a country. By applying Alexander’s (2002) categorization of public interest to flood risk management practices in The Netherlands, we show that the strongly unitary conception of the public interest (a historic ‘flood risk safety for all’), is intertwined with a state-based, sector-based, hydro-technical governance and expertise system. Although this conception is very strong it is no longer self-evident. Because of changing conceptions of governance in general and because of the felt necessity to adapt to climate change, Dutch flood risk management is gradually changing. Increasingly, the Dutch government has to deal with more dialogical and utilitarian approaches to public interest in the governance of flood risks. The Dutch approach is rooted in community-based interests in flood protection and was centralized and rationalized during the 19th and 20th century. The current flood risk standards are based upon a coarse utilitarian benefit-cost analysis, but evolved into mostly a unitary idea of national safety materialized in law by statutory flood risk standards. The findings show that this unitary concept and status of the public interest of flood risk safety has not diminished; it must, however, increasingly take into account the importance of both processes of decision making (dialogues, deliberations) and neighboring public interests. We conclude that the Dutch conception of the public interest on flood safety is still strong but nevertheless gradually changing, not the least because of a general availability of the information and technology to calculate and differentiate risks.     

Breaking barriers for a bio-based economy: Interactive reflection on monitoring water quality

In a transition to a bio-based economy new ways of monitoring waste-streams and water quality can then contribute to sustainable production processes. As niche innovation, new ways of monitoring face systemic barriers. The present article examines how barriers to change manifest in discursive practices with differing normative attachments and implications. A frame analysis revealed two competing frames: (1) the dominant ‘norm water’ frame in which thresholds of chemical compounds are used to set policy targets; and (2) the contesting ‘living water’ frame, which entails innovative continuous monitoring tools that take into account the ecological effects of chemical compounds. We introduce the concept of interactive reflectivity, as a discursive tool, to collaboratively visualize, scrutinize and overcome discursive barriers to innovations. The stakeholder dialogue shows how systemic barriers are uttered discursively in niches – or other forms of responsible research and innovation – and may hinder change even at the niche-level.     

Making water policy work in the United Kingdom: A case study of practical approaches to strengthening complex,multi-tiered systems of water governance

We propose a suite of actions for strengthening water governance in contexts with complex, multi-tiered arrangements. In doing so, we focus on the collective water policies and approaches of the United Kingdom (UK), including those of devolved governments, which confront a host of serious water-related challenges—from massive flooding of urban areas and agricultural lands, to pressure on aquifers from rising water demand and drought. Further complexity in addressing these challenges has emerged in the wake of the June 2016 vote to leave the European Union (EU), so-called ‘Brexit’, and the ensuing ‘separation process’ with uncertainties for institutional and governance arrangements to follow. We make ten proposals for improving and reinvigorating water policy in complex, multi-layered situations, and comment specifically on their application in the UK setting. These are: put in place a system-wide water policy; fully embrace community-led nested river basin planning and management; fully fund river basin planning and management; re-focus the policy framing; use best-available data and information; create conversational spaces and become a more water-literate society; mobilise people; support and sustain core community networks; underpin river basin plans with regulatory provisions and effective monitoring and enforcement; and address systemic institutional amnesia. Individually and collectively, we contend that these actions will have a marked effect on transforming the planning and management of water resources. A system-wide water policy that maintains and builds on the substantive biophysical and socio-economic benefits delivered through implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive, together with the more recent Floods Directive, will galvanise stewardship of water in the UK. We urge more active engagement with and empowerment of the multiplicity of system ‘actors’, and highlight the role of non-government actors in a post-Brexit world as conduits for reaching out to and connecting directly with a wide range of water-related actors, especially across the EU. While attention to-date has focused on a plethora of specifically water-related projects, initiatives, plans and regulations, what is really needed is a systemic, long-term view of water resource management.     

Conservation and sustainable use of crop wild relatives

Conservation of crop wild relatives (CWRs) is a complex interdisciplinary process that is being addressed by various national and international initiatives, including two Global Environment Facility projects (‘In situ Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives through Enhanced Information Management and Field Application’ and ‘Design, Testing and Evaluation of Best Practices for in situ Conservation of Economically Important Wild Species’), the European Community-funded project ‘European Crop Wild Relative Diversity Assessment and Conservation Forum (PGR Forum)’ and the European ‘In situ and On Farm Network’. The key issues that have arisen are: (1) the definition of what constitutes a CWR, (2) the need for national and regional information systems and a global system, (3) development and application of priority-determining mechanisms, (4) the incorporation of the conservation of CWRs into existing national, regional and international PGR programmes, (5) assessment of the effectiveness of conservation actions, (6) awareness of the importance of CWRs in agricultural development at local, national and international levels both for the scientific and lay communities and (7) policy development and legal framework. The above issues are illustrated by work on the conservation of a group of legumes known as grasspea chicklings, vetchlings, and horticultural ornamental peas (Lathyrus spp.) in their European and Mediterranean centre of diversity.     

The ISO 14001 certification of a machine-process

Some process machines in industrial manufacturing can be defined machine-process: their operations can be analysed by several points of view independently from the larger manufacturing process where they are included. For a machine-process, an Ems—Environmental management system can be set up and the ISO 14001 certification reached in an ‘earlier application’ way, with the involvement of both supplier/manufacturer and client/user. The ‘earlier certification’ of machine-processes adds new contents to the product, linked to the environment, helping the market of ‘clean technologies’, and fosters the diffusion of ISO 14001 certification among supplying/manufacturing companies and clients/users whose entire process is not yet certified.A case study is presented that has been experienced in Italy. The ‘offer and design’ phase of a port mobile shiploader is completely developed by following the ‘earlier application’ scheme for ISO 14001 certification of a machine process—introduced and explained in the paper. Achieved results are shown, and the perspective of a complete application of the scheme to the following ‘detailed design and assembly’ and ‘operations’ phases of the same machine are outlined. The feasibility of such a new application of ISO 14000 standards is proved, together with its advantages, while the readiness of the market for the new sector of earlier certification of machine-processes is highlighted.     

Modelled soil organic carbon stocks and changes in the Indo-Gangetic Plains,India from 1980 to 2030

The Global Environment Facility co-financed Soil Organic Carbon (GEFSOC) Project developed a comprehensive modelling system for predicting soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks and changes over time. This research is an effort to predict SOC stocks and changes for the Indian, Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), an area with a predominantly rice (Oryza sativa)–wheat (Triticum aestivum) cropping system, using the GEFSOC Modelling System and to compare output with stocks generated using mapping approaches based on soil survey data. The GEFSOC Modelling System predicts an estimated SOC stock for the IGP, India of 1.27, 1.32 and 1.27 Pg for 1990, 2000 and 2030, respectively, in the top 20 cm of soil. The SOC stock using a mapping approach based on soil survey data was 0.66 and 0.88 Pg for 1980 and 2000, respectively. The SOC stock estimated using the GEFSOC Modelling System is higher than the stock estimated using the mapping approach. This is due to the fact that while the GEFSOC System accounts for variation in crop input data (crop management), the soil mapping approach only considers regional variation in soil texture and wetness. The trend of overall change in the modelled SOC stock estimates shows that the IGP, India may have reached an equilibrium following 30–40 years of the Green Revolution. This can be seen in the SOC stock change rates. Various different estimation methods show SOC stocks of 0.57–1.44 Pg C for the study area. The trend of overall change in C stock assessed from the soil survey data indicates that the soils of the IGP, India may store a projected 1.1 Pg of C in 2030.     

Rethinking the role of information in chemicals policy: implications for TSCA and REACH

This article analyses the role of different kinds of information for minimizing or eliminating the risks due to the production, use, and disposal of chemical substances and contrasts it with present and planned (informational) regulation in the United States and the European Union, respectively. Some commentators who are disillusioned with regulatory approaches have argued that informational tools should supplant mandatory regulatory measures unflatteringly described as “command and control.” Critics of this reformist view are concerned with the lack of technology-innovation forcing that results from informational policies alone. We argue that informational tools can be made more technology inducing – and thus more oriented towards environmental innovations – than they are under current practices, with or without complementary regulatory mechanisms, although a combination of approaches may yield the best results.The conventional approach to chemicals policy envisions a sequential process that includes three steps of (1) producing or collecting risk-relevant information, (2) performing a risk assessment or characterization, followed by (3) risk management practices, often driven by regulation. We argue that such a sequential process is too static, or linear, and spends too many resources on searching for, or generating information about present hazards, in comparison to searching for, and generating information related to safer alternatives which include input substitution, final product reformulation, and/or process changes. These pollution prevention or cleaner technology approaches are generally acknowledged to be superior to pollution control. We argue that the production of risk information necessary for risk assessment, on the one hand, and the search for safer alternatives on the other hand, should be approached simultaneously in two parallel quests. Overcoming deficits in hazard-related information and knowledge about risk reduction alternatives must take place in a more synchronized manner than is currently being practiced. This parallel approach blurs the alleged bright line between risk assessment and risk management, but reflects more closely how regulatory agencies actually approach the regulation of chemicals.These theoretical considerations are interpreted in the context of existing and planned informational tools in the United States and the European Union, respectively. The current political debate in the European Union concerned with reforming chemicals policy and implementing the REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals) system is focused on improving the production and assessment of risk information with regard to existing chemicals, although it also contains some interesting risk management elements. To some extent, REACH mirrors the approach taken in the United States under the Toxics Substances Control Act (TSCA) of 1976. TSCA turned out not to be effectively implemented and provides lessons that should be relevant to REACH. In this context, we discuss the opportunities and limits of existing and planned informational tools for achieving risk reduction.     

Product service systems as systemic cures for obese consumption and production

Many environmental and social problems emerged from our modern production and consumption habits are comparable with the symptoms of physical obesity. Based on this metaphor, effective approaches in obesity treatment can serve as a good reference in order to respond to over-consumption problems. Instead of stressing consumers to change their behaviours, we can attract them by means of providing appropriately designed PSS offers and giving them the opportunities to become aware of better alternatives. Successful examples seem to document support for the hypothesis that, ‘the multidimensional and dynamic approaches are the most promising diet solutions, which can lead to a leaner production and consumption figure.’     

An assessment of potential responses of Melaleuca genus to global climate change

The genus Melaleuca consists of around 260 species covering over eight million hectares (including native and introduced species) and distributed mostly in Australia, but also occurring in South-East Asia, the Southern United States and the Caribbean. Melaleuca populations predominantly occur in wetland or/and coastal ecosystems where they have been significantly affected by climate change. This paper assesses the potential responses of the Melaleuca genus to climate change, based on the synthesis of worldwide published data. The main findings include: (i) that the Melaleuca genus has a rich species diversity, and significant phenotypic diversity in a variety of ecosystems; (ii) they demonstrate significant local adaptation to harsh conditions; and (iii) the fossil records and taxon biology indicate the evolution of the Melaleuca genus began around 38 million years ago and they have survived several significant climatic alterations, particularly a shift towards cooler and drier climates that has occurred over this period. These findings show that the Melaleuca genus is highly resilient and adaptable and based on this, this paper argues that Melaleuca can adapt to climate change through Wright’s ‘migrational adaptation’, and can be managed to achieve sustainable benefits.     

Carbon accounting for forest harvesting and wood products: review and evaluation of different approaches

Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, more than 160 countries are required to report their national greenhouse gas inventories. To help countries meet this requirement, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) prepared guidelines for inventorying greenhouse gases. These guidelines are regularly reviewed to ensure that they are based on the best scientific knowledge. In May 1998, in Dakar, Senegal, an IPCC expert meeting reviewed and evaluated three approaches for accounting for carbon from forest harvesting and wood products. They are the atmospheric-flow, stock-change and production approaches. In the future, governments may decide to include one of the three approaches in the land-use change and forestry module of the IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Here, we demonstrate how such approaches can be evaluated using technical, scientific and policy criteria. The purpose of this evaluation is to help policy-makers potentially choose an approach for the IPCC Guidelines. This paper presents the framework of the evaluation by separating the technical and policy issues of each approach, but it does not make policy recommendations. On technical and scientific grounds, a group of experts found that the three approaches gave similar results at a global level. Data availability is not a critical factor in choosing between the approaches. However, at the national level, the approaches can differ significantly, for example, in terms of their system boundaries. Depending on technical features of each approach, credits and debits for CO₂ flows or changes in carbon stock in wood products are accounted for differently among countries that produce or consume wood. This leads to differing incentives for conserving or enhancing carbon stocks in forests, the use of imported wood products and woodfuels and waste minimisation strategies. Each approach has different implications.     

The roles of cleaner production in the sustainable development of modern societies: an introduction to this special issue

This issue of the Journal of Cleaner Production is based upon papers presented at the 1st International Workshop Advances in Cleaner Production (CP) held in São Paulo, Brazil, in 2007. The conference had the short-term purpose of deepening the Brazilian discussion on “The Roles of Cleaner Production in the Sustainable Development of Modern Societies”, and it had the long-term objective of providing an on-going interdisciplinary forum for knowledge development and exchange on Cleaner Production (CP) and Sustainable Development. This issue is devoted to papers covering a broad range of perspectives of CP practices and strategies. A special focus is placed upon methodological tools designed to support effective decision-making pertaining to quantitative benefits from CP.The ten papers provide insights from research designed to holistically integrate CP to help society make effective progress to sustainability. Papers cover the importance of informal knowledge, as complementary to formal knowledge, in performing effective ‘Environmental Impact Assessments.’ One paper explores the roles of radical and incremental innovation in the context of alternative automotive technologies. Benefits of Ecodesign are explored in two papers; one concerning its integration with remanufacturing to extend the life of used products and one focusing the adoption of ‘Emergy Environmental Accounting,’ as a complementary decision-making tool. The development of the Brazilian LCI database for ‘hydroelectric power generation’ and its contribution to support regionally relevant LCA studies is highlighted in one paper. The complete production chains of biodiesel and bioethanol are evaluated by using global methodologies, which help in the development of more objective and effective solutions. A “compensatory area”, calculated in terms of emergy, is proposed in order to work in a sustainable way for bamboo production. Finally, a paper about a novel approach for recycling used PET is also included.     

A new method for estimation of dry deposition of particles based on throughfall measurements in a forest edge

Throughfall measurements are very often used to calculate the atmospheric input to ecosystems. Such attempts are normally complicated by canopy interaction processes which are difficult to assess. This study presents an approach to calculate dry deposition and canopy leaching of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and K⁺ to forests. The calculations are based on throughfall measurements in a forest edge of a spruce stand and by use of Na⁺ as a model substance for dry deposition of particles. This ‘forest edge approach’ is compared with an approach based on equal Na⁺ to base cation ratios in wet and dry deposition (‘wet/dry ratio approach’), which has been widely used in the literature. Our calculations show that the wet/dry ratio approach may overestimate the dry deposition of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and K⁺ by up to 100% and leaching will correspondingly be underestimated. The assumptions underlying the different approaches and the use of throughfall measurements to estimate dry deposition are discussed and it is suggested that throughfall measurements in forest edges may be a valuable improvement to studies of atmospheric deposition in forests.     

Translating soil science into environmental policy: A case study on implementing the EU soil protection strategy in The Netherlands

The EU Commission has proposed a way forward towards a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection based on the distinction of seven soil functions and eight threats. A Technical Working Group on Research defined some 200 general priority research areas in the context of the dynamic DPSIR approach considering drivers, pressures, states, impacts and responses. Though quite valuable as a source document, this may be too generic and academic to be a starting point for new, effective soil research in different regions of the EU. A six-step storyline procedure is therefore proposed aimed at deriving effective operational procedures for a water management unit in a given region, using available soil expertise and defining new research only where needed. The procedure, that was illustrated for a Dutch case study, consists of defining: (i) water management units (wmu's) in a landscape context; (ii) land-use, area hydrology and soil functions (iii) soil threats and relevant soil qualities; (iv) drivers of land-use change and their future impact; (v) improvement of relevant soil qualities; (vi) possibilities to institutionalize soil quality improvement as part of the EU soil protection strategy. A focus on regional wmu's is likely to result in a strong commitment of local stakeholders and governmental officials, allowing a more specific DPSIR approach. But this will only work if local officials also receive legal powers to develop and enforce codified ‘good practices’, to be developed in the context of communities of practice. Innovative research topics can be derived from a combined analysis of experiences within different communities of practice in different wmu's and should not be left to researchers to define.