Emergy as a tool for Ecodesign: evaluating materials selection for beverage packages in Brazil

The life of a product begins with the initial product design concepts; the costs and potential impacts of a product are heavily influenced by the final design, the production processes, the economic and environmental costs of all raw materials. Additionally, both of these factors are very much affected by how the products are managed during and after consumer usage. Thus, there is an urgent need for a tool to facilitate the integration and assessment of environmental and economic demands into the product planning and development processes. The introduction of environmental accounting based on emergy as a tool to assist in product design is proposed. This complementary tool may be inserted into the conventional design methodology to facilitate in the selection of materials and processes as well as in the actual design of the products. To illustrate the application of the proposed method for material selection, PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles and aluminum cans for beverage packaging are compared. Despite the exceptional condition of aluminum recycling in Brazil, results show that the best option for beverage packages is the PET bottles.     

Cost efficiency analysis and emission reduction by implementation of energy efficiency standards for electric motors

The industrial sector is the biggest electricity consumer in Malaysia. Electric motors account for more than 45% of the electricity consumption in the industrial sector in the country. Therefore, it is very important to implement energy efficiency standards for electric motors to reduce energy consumption growth in this sector. This paper attempts to calculate the cost efficiency analysis and emission reduction by implementing energy efficiency standards for electric motor in Malaysia. The energy efficiency standards are proposed based on the efficiency of electric motors from survey data. The study examines the potential energy, economical and environmental impacts of the implementation of energy efficiency standards for electric motors in three scenarios i.e. 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% of standards efficiency improvement. Standards also enable consumers to reduce their electricity bill and contribute to a positive environmental impact.     

Eco-efficiency in the SMEs of Venezuela. Current status and future perspectives

This paper presents a comparison analysis of eco-efficiency in the small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) of Venezuela. The research can be divided into three parts: the first part reviews similar studies in the literature on the level of eco-efficiency exhibited by the companies of Venezuela and other countries. In the second place, the findings of a survey conducted on Venezuelan SMEs allowed the definition of 54 eco-efficiency profiles. Thirdly, six national experts in cleaner production and eco-efficiency were interviewed. The interview was based on a questionnaire similar to that used in the survey of the Venezuelan SMEs. At a second meeting, the experts were asked to discuss on the similarities and differences between their answers and those of the company's managers.The findings of the survey allow us to conclude that Venezuelan SMEs understand the legal environmental regulations that affect them but they do not perceive the influence of external driving forces like customers demand for green products or institutional incentives. The adoption of eco-efficiency practices is not perceived as an incentive to improve competitiveness so that the environmental strategies adopted generally aim at reducing costs or avoiding non-compliance sanctions and negative effects on the company image. Materials recycling and reuse, especially packaging materials, are common practices; however, other environmental tools or practices have not been implemented yet, e.g. environmental management systems (EMS), process, product and services design tools based on the product life cycle, renewable energy resources or green marketing. There are also differences among the eight industrial sectors analyzed, food and chemical industries having the higher index of eco-efficiency practices, and plastic and wood industries the lower.     

Case study evidence that direct regulation remains the main driver of industrial pollution avoidance and may benefit operational efficiency

Environmental regulation is required to reduce industrial pollution to levels that are socially acceptable and economically efficient, but there is debate over the most efficient form of such regulation. Typically, a limited range of environmental and economic parameters are accounted for in the econometric studies that inform that debate. This paper integrates evidence from two separate studies to assess a broad range of parameters related to the efficiency of industrial environmental regulation. Questionnaire responses from 25 Italian manufacturers of building-chemicals and 28 Irish pharmaceutical manufacturers provided evidence on the environmental effectiveness and operational impacts of different regulatory instruments. Combined with extensive emissions data from Irish pharmaceutical manufacturers, survey results enabled a quantitative estimation of pollution avoidance specifically attributable to direct regulation. The monetised social benefit of avoided pollution was found to be equal to direct compliance costs. Chemical manufacturers in Italy and Ireland stated that direct regulation is a more important driver of industrial environmental performance than economic or voluntary regulation, and their responses indicated that direct compliance costs may be countered somewhat by stimulated operational improvements. It was concluded that direct regulation is an effective approach for multi-pollutant control in an industrial context, and that the efficiency of such regulation may be underestimated in studies that do not consider the full range of pollutants and operational effects.     

Benefits of tropical forest management under the new climate change agreement—a case study in Cambodia

Promoting sustainable forest management as part of the reduced emissions from deforestation and degradation in developing countries (REDD)-plus mechanism in the Copenhagen Accord of December 2009 implies that tropical forests will no longer be ignored in the new climate change agreement. As new financial incentives are pledged, costs and revenues on a 1-ha tract of tropical forestland being managed or cleared for other land use options need to be assessed so that appropriate compensation measures can be proposed. Cambodia's highly stocked evergreen forest, which has experienced rapid degradation and deforestation, will be the first priority forest to be managed if financial incentives through a carbon payment scheme are available. By analyzing forest inventory data, we assessed the revenues and costs for managing a hypothetical 1 ha of forestland against six land use options: business-as-usual timber harvesting (BAU-timber), forest management under the REDD-plus mechanism, forest-to-teak plantation, forest-to-acacia plantation, forest-to-rubber plantation, and forest-to-oil palm plantation. We determined annual equivalent values for each option, and the BAU-timber and REDD-plus management options were the highest, with both options influenced by logging costs and timber price. Financial incentives should be provided at a level that would allow continuation of sustainable logging and be attractive to REDD-plus project developers.     

Cleaner production and industrial ecosystems, a Dutch experience

This article opens briefly with the recent discussions about the effectiveness of pollution prevention. As pollution prevention and cleaner production are important elements of industrial ecology, the different definitions and approaches of industrial ecology as a term also need clarity. The major part of this article reflects the first results of the cleaner production and industrial ecology concepts, applied in an industrial ecosystem project (INES) in the Rotterdam harbour area. In this industrial area with many refineries and (petro)chemical facilities, the possibilities for companies to reuse waste streams, by-products and energy from each other was researched. The project was initiated by an industrial association. Sixty-nine members of the industrial association joined the INES project and provided confidential information about their resources, products and waste streams to the research team. Based on this information, 15 projects were designed. The selected three projects for further feasibility studies showed the potency to reduce the use of energy, water and bio sludge significantly.     

A cleaner production method for the synthesis of bronopol – A bactericide that is useful in leather making

In leather industry environmental concern has been growing since 1980s. Increasing levels of pollutant emissions have reached saturation point in spite of the conventional technology that highly industrial countries have adopted to keep them under control. This has started a technology revolution in several industries. These critical levels of pollution may have been caused by high industrial density, by high population density or by the use of old polluting technology. This situation has boosted emerging green technology which has begun to take up a larger portion of research work in the supply and raw materials in industries. Together with consumers growing awareness of the environment, this new technology has ended up affecting the consumer good industry. In leather industry due to the sector's bad public image regarding pollution more emphasis has been given to clean technologies and waste reduction. At this time nearly every part of the tanning process has several cleaner or environmentally friendlier alternatives. In leather industry to prevent damage to the hide and skin, bactericide is added during soaking process to kill the growth of microorganism. Bronopol is used as a bactericide. The active ingredient of bronopol is 2-bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol. Here we have reported simple and cleaner technology of the bronopol by using nontoxic and non-hazardous raw materials and belongs to the modern concept of environmentally friendly low waste or nonwaste technology. Bronopol was characterized by IR and Mass spectral data.     

Applying ecosystem concepts to the planning of industrial areas: a case study of Singapore’s Jurong Island

The application of ecological concepts to the industrial setting has been touched upon by literature across several disciplines. Two emerging ecological planning approaches, landscape ecology and industrial ecology, are applied here to look at alternative ways of planning industrial parks. As an emerging field, landscape ecology provides different viewpoints from the traditional approach of natural conservation, which mainly focuses on the protection of nature. The approach of landscape ecology regards the environment as a land mosaic, a mixture of natural and urban environment, which concerns a manageable human-scale environment across one or two human generations. Industrial ecology, on the other hand, goes beyond the traditional “end of pipe” idea of pollution control and learns from the ecosystem concept. The current paper is an attempt to reconcile these two fields as an integrated approach to the planning of industrial areas. Using a case study of Singapore’s Jurong Island industrial park, two fundamental issues behind the idea of landscape ecology and industrial ecology are raised. If raw materials, energy and by-products are more easily replaced or reused by technology and management, then research on industrial ecology and related knowledge will be crucial for developing natural resource substitution by innovative technology and new ways of environmental management. Where it is difficult to substitute natural resources, the skills of planning and managing natural resources will take priority over other strategies. In this situation, the knowledge of landscape ecology needs to be applied to the prediction, design and evaluation of ecologically optimum resource uses, patterns and processes in the mixture of natural, urban and industrial environment. A new concept, “nurtured landscape”, is proposed for mediating between the natural ecosystem and the urban/industrial environment. The nurtured landscape provides a basis for the development of new ecological technology using landscape to ameliorate the polluting effects of the urban/industrial neighbourhood. The planning of Singapore’s Jurong Island industrial park provides a test of applying the principles of landscape ecology and industrial ecology to the possible transformation of an industrial area.     

Leaching of styrene and other aromatic compounds in drinking water from PS bottles

Bottled water may not be safer, or healthier, than tap water. The present studies have proved that styrene and some other aromatic compounds leach continuously from polystyrene （PS） bottles used locally for packaging. Water sapmles in contact with PS were extracted by a preconcentration technique called as ＂purge and trap＂ and analysed by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer （GC/MS）. Eleven aromatic compounds were identified in these studies. Maximum concentration of styrene in PS bottles was 29.5 μg/L. Apart from styrene, ethyl benzene, toluene and benzene were also quantified but their concentrations were much less than WHO guide line values. All other compounds were in traces. Quality of plastic and storage time were the major factor in leaching of styrene. Concentration of styrene was increased to 69.53 μg/L after one-year storage. In Styrofoam and PS cups studies, hot water was found to be contaminated with styrene and other aromatic compounds. It was observed that temperature played a major role in the leaching of styrene monomer from Styrofoam cups. Paper cups were found to be safe for hot drinks.     

生态学原理在生态工业园发展中的应用

近年来生态学原理越来越广泛的应用于人类社会的各个方面,尤其是随着循环经济模式的提出和清洁生产理念的倡导,生态工业园成为工业园发展的未来方向。本文重点阐述了国内外生态工业园的类型以和发展趋势,以及我国生态工业园目前在建设过程中存在的相关问题。     

Green renewal: incorporating environmental factors in equipment replacement decisions under technological change

Equipment replacement is a fact of life in every industrial setting, and this paper seeks to answer the question: How can firms and policy makers effectively balance environmental and economic concerns with respect to replacement decisions? A replacement model which includes both economic and environmental factors is presented. One must decide whether to keep the existing technology, upgrade to a newer technology which produces a smaller environmental burden, or wait for an even newer, cleaner technology which may be introduced soon. More than 25 000 test problems are solved, examining different objectives and covering a wide range of applications. Including environmental costs does not lead to a consistent increase in the adoption of cleaner technologies; however, including incentives to adopt newer technologies does. When one accounts for the environmental impact of producing new equipment and disposing of old equipment, earlier adoption of new technologies actually increases the total environmental burden in some cases.     

Strategy development in small and medium sized enterprises for sustainability and increased value creation

Sustainability strategies create many synergistic effects for SMEs working collaboratively, as well as systemic benefits for the commons. After setting forth the business case for sustainable SMEs, and considering SME sustainability advantages in contrast to MNEs, this paper discusses several different incentives for SMEs to optimize sustainability: (1) becoming valuable sustainable investment targets for larger firms; (2) creating highly competitive networks of sustainable SMEs in market spaces where large enterprises are less successful; (3) becoming highly efficient suppliers in global supply chains through sustainable practices.While several successful models of the sustainable SME are evolving, it may be that networks of SMEs will become essential for addressing the systemic problems that underlie industrial ecology, enterprise resilience, and global supply chain sustainability. SMEs represent the majority of all enterprises, and rapidly evolving communication technologies allow for various routes of network formation.     

The European Commission's sustainable consumption and production and sustainable industrial policy action plan

The promotion of sustainable consumption and production patterns is enshrined as a key objective in the renewed European Union Sustainable Development Strategy (EU SDS). Sustainable consumption and production is arguably the most challenging aspect of the EU SDS. It requires changes to the way products and services are designed, produced, used and disposed of, taking into account producer and consumer behaviours. This paper reviews the European Commission's Communication on the sustainable consumption and production and sustainable industrial policy action plan, introduced on July 16, 2008. The paper examines the priority areas identified for action, the means adopted to improve energy and environmental performance of products as well as uptake by consumers. The paper concludes that the absence of mandatory quantifiable targets and deadlines and a reliance on both cross-sectoral and multi-level relationships are likely to weaken the ability of the action plan's fundamental objective of decoupling economic growth from resource use.     

Adaptation or conflict? Responses to climate change in water management in Bangladesh

The potential of climate change to impact local conflict and cooperation over natural resources has received relatively little attention. Bangladesh floodplains are highly vulnerable to environmental stresses that are worsening with climate change, and community organisations have to respond to water insecurity − seasonally too little or too much. Two case studies based on action research in contrasting water and climate stressed floodplain environments in Bangladesh investigate local conflicts over water management that worsened when water regimes changed. By overcoming conflicts and improving adaptation for all local actors the cases reveal the importance of local knowledge, innovations in institutions, external facilitation, and incentives provided by disadvantaged groups who contribute towards costs in return for a share in decision making power and better adapted water management. The cases show how community organisations diversified their responsibilities and took up the challenge of water management to address local priorities and overcome conflicts. Without a more flexible and enabling approach, public investments in adaptation are likely to focus on strengthening existing water management infrastructure without understanding local social interactions and complexity. This may strengthen elite dominance and local conflicts if there is no comparable investment in developing robust and fair local institutions.     

Utilization of publicly owned treatment works to promote pollution prevention

Industrial production processes contribute the most diverse group of emissions to air, water, and land pollution. These forms of pollution were the initial focus of environmental regulations requiring control efforts. Under optimum conditions, industrial waste streams pass through some type of treatment to minimize toxicity prior to being released into the environment. Business, government, and interest groups have previously assumed that industrial productivity and environmental quality were diametrically opposed. In other words, enhanced industrial productivity resulted in environmental damage and, conversely, environmental protection resulted in costs to business. However, companies that have implemented pollution prevention (P2) strategies to address their environmental problems have usually found that their facility's productivity can improve, while at the same time waste and pollution can be reduced. Where previous environmental strategies focused on end-of-pipe control efforts, P2 strategies are implemented at the design or process phase. While there are many examples of individual companies successfully implementing P2, consensus shows P2 adoption by the business community advancing at a rate far slower than expected. Most government agencies that currently promote P2 are not typically viewed as credible sources of innovation by industry. Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTWs), however, may be able to capitalize on their dual status as respected members of the local community as well as experts in waste management thus serving as credible proponents of P2. The paper discusses how POTWs are working with industrial users to promote P2, as well as their interest in doing so and their requirements for technical assistance. Survey results are provided that describe how POTW personnel in the State of Illinois believe they could best promote P2.     

Spatially realistic theory of metapopulation ecology

Much of spatial ecology since the late 1960s has been dominated by two theories, the dynamic theory of island biogeography and the classical metapopulation theory. The latter theory largely replaced the former one in the 1980s, especially in conservation applications. It is only recently that ecologists have fully realized that a relatively simple general theory can be readily constructed that makes some of the simplifying assumptions of the two earlier theories unnecessary. The spatially realistic metapopulation theory thereby provides a more unified framework for spatial ecology than the island theory or the classical metapopulation theory. This article describes the application of the spatially realistic metapopulation theory to real metapopulations living in highly fragmented landscapes. I discuss the principal messages for population ecology and conservation biology, and I also place this theory into a broader context of other approaches to spatial ecology.     

稀土氨氮废水处理技术研究进展

本文旨在研究到目前为止前人对稀土氨氮废水处理技术的进展情况,尽管稀土氨氮废水的处理方法颇多,然而不是处理成本太高就是对水质的要求太苛刻,用于实践不太乐观;我们采用混合处理稀土氨氮废水的方法将减少处理成本,增强处理效果,如：化学沉淀＋吹脱,吹脱＋吸附等;另外,处理稀土氨氮废水要注意回收氨氮副产品,以抵消处理成本,达到清洁生产的目的。     

基于EDM的农业节水技术补偿

实现农业节水,必须建立有效的农业节水补偿机制对农民进行补偿。文章采用经典EDM模型,分析了农业节水技术投入对生产者、消费者及社会福利的影响。研究认为,农业节水技术投入使得生产者剩余、消费者剩余以及社会总剩余全面增加;政策实施带来社会福利变化在产品市场上的消费者与生产者之间分配,缺乏弹性的一方受到的影响往往大于富有弹性的一方;根据投入产出及"谁受益、谁补偿"的补偿原则,由消费者剩余变化及生产者剩余变化分别占社会总福利变化的比重,即可制定消费者及生产者对农业节水项目的投资付费标准以及补偿标准;建立水权交易市场,使农民通过出售节约的水资源而获益,可有效地激发其投入节水事业的积极性。     

The pollution release and transfer register system in the U.S. and Japan: an analysis of productivity

This study analyzes Total Factor Productivity (TFP), which includes all categories of productivity. Our measure investigates productivity in the context of the provision and dissemination of environmental information policies. We investigated data on the emission of toxic chemical substances for the U.S. and Japanese manufacturing firms, including 386 firms for the period 1999-2007 and 466 firms for the period 2001-2008. The results show that productivity improved in all nine industrial sectors and that pollution levels were high in the U.S. and Japan from 2001 to 2007. In particular, the electronics industry improved rapidly after 2002 in both countries, which may be attributed to the enforcement of RoHS and the REACH directive in Europe. As a result of these stringent policies on toxic chemical emissions, the U.S. and Japanese firms, many of which export to the European market, have strong incentives to reduce their toxic chemical emissions.     

中国碳排放强度的行业差异与动因分析

测算了1995—2010年中国各行业的碳排放强度,并采用行业分解方法分析了各行业对中国碳排放强度的影响. 结果表明:工业碳排放对总体碳排放强度下降起主导作用,对其下降的贡献率为73.35%;其他服务业次之,贡献率为22.68%;农业、交通运输业、商业和建筑业贡献率较低,分别为1.38%、1.22%、1.17%、0.20%. 采用泰尔指数对中国碳排放强度进行行业差异分析发现,1995—2010年中国各行业碳排放强度泰尔指数从0.3927升至0.4889,行业间碳排放强度的差异呈扩大趋势. 运用差值因素分解模型分析中国碳排放强度变化动因发现,在1995—2010年中国碳排放强度的下降中,技术效应具有促进作用,贡献率为104.64%;结构效应具有抑制作用,贡献率为-4.64%. 未来宜从优化产业结构、加快技术研发和应用等方面降低碳排放强度.