CFD Investigation of Particle Deposition in a Horizontal Looped Turbulent Pipe Flow

This paper presents comprehensive 3D numerical investigations on depositions of particles flowing through a horizontal pipe loop consisting of four bends. The multiphase mixture model available in FLUENT 6.2 was used in this study. In this numerical simulation, five different particle sizes have been used as secondary phases to calculate real multiphase effect in which inter-particle interaction has been considered. The deposition of particles along the periphery of the pipe wall was investigated as a function of particle size and fluid velocity. The simulations showed that near the upstream of the bends, maximum particle concentration occurred at the bottom of the pipe. However, downstream the bends, the maximum particle concentration occurred at an angle of 60° from the bottom. The larger particles clearly showed deposition near the bottom wall except downstream. As expected, the smaller particles showed less tendency of deposition and lesser at higher velocity. This numerical investigation showed qualitative agreement with the experiments conducted by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Melbourne team for similar conditions.     

A generalized analytical solution for turbulent dispersion with inhomogeneous wind and diffusion coefficient

A technique is presented to solve analytically the turbulent diffusion equation for the concentration of a passive contaminant emitted from an elevated continuous source into the atmosphere. A generalized method of solution using Sturm–Liouville and WKB theories is developed to overcome difficulties due to the height‐dependent wind velocity and diffusion coefficient appearing in the diffusion equation. The method presented in this paper is able to derive an asymptotic expression for the concentration obtained from the solution of the atmospheric diffusion equation which involves explicitly inhomogeneous wind velocity and diffusion coefficient. The diffusion equation model derived from this method can be applied in a practical prediction of contaminant concentration in a turbulent atmosphere. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Morphological characterization of suspended particles under wind-induced disturbance in Taihu Lake, China

Sediments are disturbed by wind frequently, especially in the shallow lakes. The characteristics of resuspended sediment particles in Taihu Lake were studied under different wind velocities. It showed that sediment particles suspended obviously and particle number in overlying water increased directly under high wind-induced disturbance. Suspended solid (SS) concentration was less than 50 mg/l when the wind velocity was below 3.0 m/s, however, it increased to more than 300 mg/l when the wind velocity was 10.0 m/s. Two methods were used to measure the fractal characteristics of particles. One was light scattering and the other was image analysis. The three-dimensional fractal dimensions of suspended particles, measured by light scattering, were between 2.26 and 2.44; correspondingly, the two-dimensional fractal dimensions, calculated by image analysis, were between 1.44 and 1.77. Moreover, the three-dimensional fractal dimensions were directly proportional to two-dimensional fractal dimensions. The characteristic length of particles was calculated by image analysis. The minimum characteristic length was close to 8.5 μm when the wind velocity was 1.5 m/s at 50 cm beneath lake surface, while, the maximum characteristic length was approximate to 24 μm when the wind velocity was 10 m/s at the depth of 150 cm.     

Sediment and Suspended Matter Lead Contamination in the Gulf of Kavala, Greece

Sediment and suspended particulate matter samples from 24 stations in the Gulf of Kavala have been examined for lead contamination. Grain size analysis and organic matter content were also performed. Total – anthropogenic sediment lead concentrations and enrichment factors at stations close to harbors and chemical industries were found higher (up to 209–135μg/g and 4.12 respectively), in relation to concentrations from the rest of the coastal zone. In the above areas, increased suspended particulate lead in the bottom of the water column was also recorded (up to 109μg/g). Total sediment lead concentrations composed of high natural Pb background increased with decreasing grain size, suggesting their association with the fine fractions of the sediments (31.1–66.0% mud presence) and the organic matter content (6–9% higher values). Overall, higher total lead concentrations in the sediments, determined by this work, appear to be significantly different from those reported for the Gulf of Kavala in previous studies and similar to those detected in other highly contaminated eastern Mediterranean coastal areas.     

Metals Associated with Suspended Sediments in Lakes Erie and Ontario, 2000–2002

Sediment traps were deployed in the three major basins of Lake Erie, and the central (Mississauga) basin of Lake Ontario, and refurbished seasonally over the period 2000–2002. In Lake Ontario, sediment down-flux rates and corresponding contaminant down-flux rates were highest in winter during periods of unstratified thermal conditions, and generally increased with depth due to the influence of resuspended bottom sediments during all sampling periods. Lake Ontario suspended sediments exhibited the highest concentrations of metals; concentrations of mercury and lead frequently exceeded guideline values for bottom sediments. Contaminant levels in Lake Ontario suspended sediments were similar to concentrations in bottom sediments in the same area. There was a spatial trend toward higher suspended sediment metals concentrations from the eastern basin to the western basin of Lake Erie, which is similar to the trend in bottom sediment contamination. In the eastern basin of Lake Erie, which is the deepest area of the lake, there was no trend in down-flux rate with depth in 2001; however, down-flux rates increased with depth in 2002. Suspended sediments in the western basin of Lake Erie were determined to be largely resuspended bottom sediments; all western basin samples collected in the study exceeded the guideline value for mercury (0.486 μg/g).     

A Numerical Model for the Transport of Chromium and Fine Sediments

A mathematical model which represents the transport processes of heavy metals and fine sediments in a fluvial stream was developed. The model consists of a three-equation system: the first one for total chromium concentration in the water column, C _Tw, the second one for total suspended sediment concentration, S _w, and the third one for chromium concentration in bed sediments, r. The third equation represents the chromium exchange between the water column and bed sediments by two processes: diffusion of soluble chromium and erosion/deposition of chromium sorbed to sediments. The basic assumption of the model is the instantaneous equilibrium. The main parameters are the partition coefficients in the water column and bed sediments, the depth of the active bed sediment layer, and the mass transfer coefficient between the water column and sediment pore water. The numerical model approximates the equations of advection–dispersion for chromium in water and suspended sediments by using a Eulerian third-order scheme. Numerical vs. analytical solutions were considered satisfactory for different initial, boundary, and sedimentological conditions. In order to estimate the impact of a chromium side discharge, the model was implemented for the Salado River in a reach of 65.6-km long (Santa Fe, Argentina). The results showed the effect of chromium discharge on almost the whole reach, then the vulnerability of the water quality in the Salado River when the flow was low was evidenced. When comparing the computed and measured results, the former showed a reasonable representation of the presence of chromium in water and bed sediments.     

Numerical Modeling of Flow Fields and Dispersion of Passive Pollutants in the Vicinity of the Temelín Nuclear Power Plant

This study deals with numerical simulation of flow fields and dispersion of model passive admixtures in the planetary boundary layer in a 10 × 10 km square area, centered on the Czech Republic’s Temelín Nuclear Power Plant. Numerical calculations of three-dimensional flow fields with eight basic wind directions given for the inlet boundary of the computational domain are performed using the FLUENT CFD code with the standard k – ε turbulence model. The resultant modeling of the flow fields provides information as to probable local directions and velocities of flow vectors on a horizontal scale of 100 m, which are consistent with the data given for the boundaries of the calculation area in the framework of a scale of 10 km. The modeled flow fields generate the input data for related Lagrangian simulation of the ground concentration and deposition fields of passive particles assumedly emitted at the site of the Temelín plant. Simulated plumes describe eight cases of potential ground-level distribution of model passive admixtures in the area.     

Numerical Modeling of Particulate Matter Dispersion from Kerman Cement Plant, Iran

A three dimensional diffusion model has been developed for computing the concentration of PM10 from Kerman Cement Plant, Iran. This model incorporates source-related factors, meteorological factors, surface roughness, and settling particles to estimate pollutant concentration from continuous sources. The study focused on the local environmental impact of Kerman Cement Plant. The performance of the model was found to be in good agreement with measured data; the average absolute percent deviation is 25.53%. In addition, the result of this modeling shows that the PM10 concentration in the ambient air at distances of about 600–1,400 m from the stacks is higher than the WHO guidelines of an annual average of 260 μg/m³.     

A case study of trace metals in suspended particulate matter and biota before wastewater treatment plant from the Izmir Bay,Turkey

The concentrations of trace metals (Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni, and Fe) from suspended particulate matter (SPM) and biota in Izmir Bay (Eastern Aegean Sea) were studied in order to evaluate the environmental impact of the anthropogenic metals before building of Wastewater Treatment Plant. SPM samples were collected in wet and dry periods from Izmir Bay. Metal concentrations in SPM (Cu, 0.36–2.19; Mn, 0.07–11.3; Ni, 0.43–7.81; Zn, 7.33–269; Fe, 1.00–266 μgdm^− 3) were comparable to those reported for other moderately polluted bays. Maximum metal concentrations in SPM were observed during summer season. SPM metal concentrations displayed a clear spatial trend with values increasing with proximity to urban centers. Cu and Zn concentrations in SPM were especially high in the inner bay. SPM were found to be contaminated by Zn. The vertical profile of Mn, Zn, and Ni concentrations in SPM had a maximal value at the upper layer and decreased to minimal value at the bottom layer of the inner bay in summer, in contrast to the observed pattern of Fe and Cu. Maximum Cu concentrations were obtained in Penaeus kerathurus. Also, maximum Zn and Fe concentrations were found in Mytilus galloprovincialis. Relatively high Cu levels were found in Sardina pilcardus and Mullus barbatus than other fish species. Besides, Cu levels were lower in Diplodus annularis and Merluccius merluccius. Finally, metal levels in biota tissues were lower than the limits of European Dietary Standards and Guidelines.     

A Numerical and Experimental Study of Pollutant Dispersion in a Traffic Tunnel

Three-dimensional turbulent flow and dispersion of gaseous pollutants carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in a road tunnel was modeled using the standard k–ε turbulence model and solved numerically using the finite volume method. Vehicle emissions were estimated from the measured traffic flow rates and modeled as banded line sources along the tunnel floor. The effects of fan ventilation and piston effect of moving vehicles on the airflow and pollutant dilution were examined. The numerical results reveal that a peak velocity exists near the tunnel floor due to the piston effect of vehicles. The cross-sectional concentrations of air pollutants are non-uniformly distributed and concentrations rise with downstream distance. The piston effect of vehicles can alone provide 25%–34% dilution of air pollutants in the tunnel, compounded 43%–70% dilution effect according to the ventilation condition.     

Distribution of heavy metals in the dissolved and suspended phase of the sea-surface microlayer, seawater column and in sediments of Singapore’s coastal environment

Concentrations of heavy metals were determined in the water column (including the sea-surface microlayer, subsurface, mid-depth and bottom water) and sediments from Singapore’s coastal environment. The concentration ranges for As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in the seawater dissolved phase (DP) were 0.34–2.04, 0.013–0.109, 0.07–0.35, 0.23–1.16, 0.28–0.78, 0.009–0.062 and 0.97–3.66 μg L⁻¹ respectively. The ranges for Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in the suspended particulate matter (SPM) were 0.16–0.73, 6.72–53.93, 12.87–118.29, 4.34–60.71, 1.10–6.08 and 43.09–370.49 μg g⁻¹, respectively. Heavy metal concentrations in sediments ranged between 0.054–0.217, 37.48–50.52, 6.30–21.01, 13.27–26.59, 24.14–37.28 and 48.20–62.36 μg g⁻¹ for Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn, respectively. The lowest concentrations of metals in the DP and SPM were most frequently found in the subsurface water while the highest concentrations were mostly observed in the SML and bottom water. Overall, heavy metals in both the dissolved and particulate fractions have depth profiles that show a decreasing trend of concentrations from the subsurface to the bottom water, indicating that the prevalence of metals is linked to the marine biological cycle. In comparison to data from Greece, Malaysia and USA, the levels of metals in the DP are considered to be low in Singapore. Higher concentrations of particulate metals were reported for the Northern Adriatic Sea and the Rhine/Meuse estuary in the Netherlands compared to values reported in this study. The marine sediments in Singapore are not heavily contaminated when compared to metal levels in marine sediments from other countries such as Thailand, Japan, Korea, Spain and China.     

Interactions of Atmospheric Deposition with Coniferous Canopies in Estonia

Throughfall and open field bulk precipitation were measured at three coniferous sites during 1995–2002 in the framework of ICP Integrated Monitoring and at five coniferous sites during 1996–2002 in the framework of ICP Forests (Level II). The coniferous canopies acted as a sink for nitrate and ammonium and as a source for base cations: Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and K⁺. The estimated share of SO₄–S dry deposition from total deposition was 1.5–4 times higher for dormant period compared to growing period. During the study period average annual throughfall and bulk deposition of SO₄–S decreased significantly, 2.8 and 2.3 times, respectively. Throughfall enrichment with base cations increased in the order Mg < Na < Ca < K. Using Na as a tracer ion, average dry deposition and canopy leaching were calculated. Leaching was the dominant process for TF enrichment by potassium. Leaching of base cations occurred during growing as well as dormant period. The calculated internal flux of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ varied in the range of 0.6–2.0 and 0.6–1.2 kg ha⁻¹ per year in spruce and pine stands, respectively. The internal circulation of K⁺ was significantly higher (8.9–10.9 kg ha⁻¹ per year) in spruce stands than in pine stands (2.7–4.4 kg ha⁻¹ per year).     

Integral transform solutions for atmospheric pollutant dispersion

A transient two-dimensional advection–diffusion model describing the turbulent dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere has been solved via the Generalized Integral Transform Technique (GITT), by two different schemes. The first approach performs numerical integration of the transformed system using available routines for initial value problems with automatic error control. In spite of the time-consuming character of such a scheme, its flexibility allows the handling of problems involving time-dependent meteorological parameters such as wind speed and eddy diffusivities. The second approach works fully analytically being thus intrinsically more robust and economic, although not directly applicable in dealing with time-dependent parameters. For the test problem used in this work, both methods agree very well with each other, as well as with a known analytical solution for a simpler formulation used as benchmark. The impact of the longitudinal diffusivity on the stiffness of the ordinary differential equation (ODE) system arising from the integral transformation has been assessed through the processing time demanded to solve it when the numerical approach is used. The observed CPU times show that the analytical approach is clearly preferable unless the problem involves time-dependent parameters.     

Biosphere atmosphere exchanges: Ozone and aerosol dry deposition velocities over a pine forest

Measurements of dry deposition velocities for ozone and aerosol particles has been measured over a pine forest in the south-west of France by the eddy correlation method. Low frequency fluctuations in the variations of scalars can introduce erroneous values of vertical fluxes for ozone and aerosol particles but also, in some cases of low wind, for momentum and heat. The dry deposition velocity variations are similar for ozone and aerosol, although the mechanism of deposition are different. In the case of aerosol particles a parametrization, not far from that of Wesely et al. (1985) can be given.     

Enrichment and fractionation of heavy metals in bed sediments of River Narmada, India

A metal fractionation study on bed sediments of River Narmada in Central India has been carried out to examine the enrichment and partitioning of different metal species between five geochemical phases (exchangeable fraction, carbonate fraction, Fe/Mn oxide fraction, organic fraction and residual fraction). The river receives toxic substances through a large number of tributaries and drains flowing in the catchment of the river. The toxic substances of particular interest are heavy metals derived from urban runoff as well as municipal sewage and industrial effluents. Heavy metals entering the river get adsorbed onto the suspended sediments, which in due course of time settle down in the bottom of the river. In this study fractionation of metal ions has been carried out with the objective to determine the eco-toxic potential of metal ions. Although, in most cases (except iron) the average trace/heavy metal concentrations in sediments were higher than the standard shale values, the risk assessment code as applied to the present study reveals that only about 1–3% of manganese, <1% of copper, 16–19% of nickel, 4–20% of chromium, 1–4% of lead, 8–13% of cadmium and 1–3% of zinc exist in exchangeable fraction and therefore falls under low to medium risk category. According to the Geo-accumulation Index (GAI), cadmium shows high accumulation in the river sediments, rest of other metals are under unpolluted to moderately polluted class.     

The lichen transplant methodology in the source apportionment of metal deposition around a copper smelter in the former mining town of Karabash, Russia

The lichen transplant monitoring methodology has been tested for source apportionment of metal deposition around the Cu smelter and former mining town of Karabash. Transplants of the lichen Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl., collected from a ‘control’ site in July 2001, were set up at 10 stations along a 60 km NE–SW transect centred on Karabash. Samples were collected after 2 and 3 month monitoring periods and analysed using established wet-chemical techniques. The sources of particulate investigated were the smelter blast furnace and converter, floatation tailings, metallurgical slags, local road dusts, top soils and ambient airborne total suspended particulate. From multi-element least-squares modelling the blast furnace was the main source of particulate in transplants close to the smelter (<10 km). Particulate from the converter, with relatively high Pb and Zn, was found to be more widely dispersed, being finer-grained and so having a longer atmospheric residence time. Ambient airborne particulate, sampled in Karabash town using air-pump apparatus, was almost entirely derived from the converter, very different to the lichen transplants from the same area which mainly contained blast furnace particulate. It is proposed that lichens close to the smelter mainly trapped larger blast furnace-derived particulate as they have a low capture efficiency for smaller (converter) particles. The study demonstrates the utility of lichen transplants for monitoring atmospheric deposition and highlights the caution required in their use to assess ambient air quality in human health studies.     

Application of GIS in the study of mass transport of pollutants by Adyar and Cooum Rivers in Chennai, Tamilnadu

Residential, industrial, commercial, institutional and recreational activities discharge degradable and non-degradable wastes that reach the coastal water through rivers and cause coastal pollution. In the present study, mass transport of pollutants by Adyar and Cooum Rivers to the coastal water as a result of land-based discharges was estimated during low tide. The lowest and the highest flow recorded in Adyar varied from 514.59 to 2,585.08×10⁶ litres/day. Similarly, the flow in Cooum River fluctuated between 266.45 and 709.34×10⁶ litres/day. The present study revealed that the Adyar River transported 53.89–454.11 t/d of suspended solids, 0.06–19.64 t/d of ammonia, 15.95–123.24 t/d of nitrate and 0.4–17.86 t/d of phosphate, 0.004–0.09 kg/d of cadmium, 0.15–1.29 kg/d of lead and 3.03–17.58 kg/d of zinc to the coastal water owing to its high discharge. Similarly, the Cooum River transported 11.87–120.06 t/d of suspended solids, 0.08–58.7 t/d of ammonia, 6.11–29.25 t/d of nitrate and 0.66–10.73 t/d of phosphate, 0.003–0.021 kg/d of cadmium, 0.02–0.44 kg/d of lead and 1.36–3.87 kg/d of zinc. A higher concentration of suspended solids was noticed in post monsoon and summer months. An increase in the mass transport of ammonia, nitrate, phosphate in summer months (April and May) and an increase in the mass transport of cadmium, lead and zinc were observed in monsoon months (October–December) in both the rivers. Thus mass transport of pollutants study reveal that Cooum and Adyar Rivers in Chennai contribute to coastal pollution by transporting inorganic and trace metals significantly through land drainage.     

Influence of burning of fireworks on particle size distribution of PM<Subscript>10</Subscript> and associated Barium at Nagpur

Influence of burning of fireworks on particle size distribution of PM₁₀ and associated barium (Ba) were studied at a congested residential cum commercial area of Nagpur city, India. Sampling was carried out by cascade impactor having 50% cut-off aerodynamic diameters of <10, 9, 5.8, 4.7, 3.3, 2.1, 1.1, 0.7, and <0.4 μm, 2 days before diwali, during diwali, celebrations of marriage functions, and New Year’s Eve. Noticeably, increased levels of PM₁₀ and Ba were observed during diwali as compared to days before diwali and other activities. PM₁₀ levels were increased by four to nine times whereas Ba levels were increased by eight to 20 times higher in alveolar region, when compared with the levels observed before diwali. Probability of deposition of Ba mass in alveolar region varied between 14 and 27 ng/h with higher deposition when the burning of fireworks activity was lower near the site. Trimodal distribution of Ba was observed on the first 2 days of diwali at 0.4–2.1, 2.1–4.7, and 4.7 to less than PM₁₀ micrometer range. While on the third day, it appeared bimodal with 70% contribution in coarse fraction whereas on the fourth day, distribution appeared unimodal with 66% contribution in alveolar region (<0.4–1.1 μm). Distribution of Ba varied with respect to particle size, in accordance with the intensity of the fireworks used on different days and distance between the burning of firecrackers from the monitoring site.     

Modelling the Transport of Oil–Mineral-Aggregates (OMAs) in the Marine Environment and Assessment of Their Potential Risks

Spilled oil can interact with suspended particles in marine environments and form oil–mineral aggregates (OMAs). Some OMAs with densities higher than seawater density can settle to the seedbed to pose potential risks to benthic organisms. To understand the transport and fate of oil associated with OMAs and evaluate their potential risks, an integrated hydrodynamic and fate/transport model has been used in a hypothetical case study of 1,000 tonnes of South Louisiana oil spilled in the Bristol Channel. Several scenarios have been simulated under different wave and current conditions. By using OMA properties derived from laboratory measurements reported in literature, it has been found that the risk to the benthos is unlikely for the two hypothetical cases with strong currents, but it is likely for the wave only (weak current) case. The effects of other factors such as OMA properties and sediment concentration were also examined in terms of their effects on the transport process and risks.     

Distribution of PAEs in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, China

Samples of water, sediment and suspended particulates were collected from 13 sites in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River in China. Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) concentrations in different phases of each sample were determined by Gas Chromatogram GC-FID. The results are shown as follows: (1) In the Xiao Langdi–Dongming Bridge section, PAEs concentrations in water phase from the main river ranged from 3.99 × 10⁻³ to 45.45 × 10⁻³ mg/L, which were similar to those from other rivers in the world. The PAEs levels in the tributaries of the Yellow River were much higher than those of the main river. (2) In the studied branches, the concentration of PAEs in sediment for Luoyang Petrochemical Channel (331.70 mg/Kg) was the highest. The concentrations of PAEs in sediment phase of the main river were 30.52 to 85.16 mg/Kg, which were much higher than those from other rivers in the world. In the main river, the concentration level of PAEs on suspended solid phases reached 94.22 mg/Kg, and it reached 691.23 mg/Kg in the Yiluo River – one tributary of the Yellow River. (3) Whether in the sediment or on the suspended solid phases, there was no significant correlation between the contents of PAEs and TOC or particle size of the solid phase; and the calculated Koc of Di (2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) in the river were much less than the theoretical value, which inferred that PAEs were not on the equilibrium between water and suspended solid phases/sediment. (4) Among the measured PAEs compounds, the proportions of DEHP and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) were much higher than the others. The concentrations of DEHP exceeded the Quality Standard in all the main river and tributary stations except those in the Mengjin and Jiaogong Bridge of the main river. This indicates that more attention should be paid to pollution control and further assessment in understanding risks associated with human health.