Risk perception research: socio-cultural perspectives on the public experience of air pollution

This paper reviews recent work in the field of risk perception research, taking its examples primarily from work relating to air pollution issues. The paper opens with a brief discussion of the psychological literature on risk perception, in order to set out the key insights, criticisms and more recent developments associated with such approaches, before turning to the findings of recent socio-cultural analyses of perceptions of air pollution. This account, which considers how social and cultural factors influence the way in which people interpret and make sense of risk, draws linkages with psychological risk perception research, revealing that over the last decade there has been a pronounced degree of convergence between the conclusions being reached across these two (historically disparate) fields of research. The paper concludes by evaluating the relevance of risk perception research for the science and policy of risk assessment and management.     

Experience with airborne detection of radioactive pollution (ENMOS, IRIS)

This paper discusses the advantages of airborne monitoring of radioactive pollution and shows example maps indicating manmade pollution from different sources. The sensitivity of airborne radioactive detection is discussed. Comparisons of airborne and different ground measurements are presented. New instrumentation for airborne or ground moving vehicles is briefly described. Airborne footprinting provides rapid, well-defined spatial images of natural and manmade radioactive contamination. Data acquisition integrated with GPS navigation provides consistent data and guarantees proper data location. Real-time airborne measurements are re-calculated, with the use of special algorithms, into absolute units for individual radioactive nuclei contamination of the ground together with dose calculation. Raw records and calculated data are provided after enhanced post-flight processing. Dose rates and detection of different radioactive elements are presented. (ENMOS is a product of Picodas Group Inc. and IRIS is the product of Pico Envirotec Inc.)     

Effect of lifestyle changes and consumption patterns on environmental impact: a comparison study of Pakistan and China

Increased economic development and industrialization put strain on environment, hence causing pollution and destroying ecosystem. Generally, many different factors affect the environment. These factors include GHG emissions, deforestation, and others. These are all related to human activities on Earth. Other factors that affect environment include population, consumption patterns, and changing life styles of people due to increased income. This study involves the comparison analysis of Pakistan and China on the basis of environmental impact caused by some major driving factors. China is the second largest CO₂ emitter in the world with a population of 1.37 billion in 2016 and the second largest economy in the world. Pakistan is ranked as 40th on the basis of nominal GDP. Both the countries observed noticeable growth in economic development for over 55 years, i.e. 1960–2016. This study identifies how population, affluence, consumption, and emissions as the major factors affect environmental pollution and use ImPACT equation, or I = PACT, to calculate the environmental impact and to determine which factors affect the environment the most. The study suggests that the people of both China and Pakistan have experienced increased income for the past 50 years and this increase has led to the changes in their lifestyles, from suitable clothing and quality food to comfortable living and increased energy consumption, thus affecting environment.     

Assessment of the genotoxicity of 137Cs radiation using Vicia-micronucleus, Tradescantia-micronucleus and Tradescantia-stamen-hair mutation bioassays

Since the middle of the 20th century, ionizing radiations from radioactive isotopes including 137Cs have been investigated to determine their genotoxic impact on living organisms. The present study was designed to compare the effectiveness of three plant bioassays to assess DNA damage induced by low doses of 137Cs: Vicia-micronucleus test (Vicia-MCN), Tradescantia-micronucleus test (Trad-MCN) and Tradescantia-stamen-hair mutation test (Trad-SH) were used. Vicia faba (broad bean) and Tradescantia clone 4430 (spiderwort) were exposed to 137Cs according to different scenarios: external and internal (contamination) irradiations. Experiments were conducted with various levels of radioactivity in solution or in soil, using solid or liquid 137Cs sources. The three bioassays showed different sensitivities to the treatments. Trad-MCN appeared to be the most sensitive test (significative response from 1.5 kBq/200 ml after 30 h of contamination). Moreover, at comparable doses, internal irradiations led to larger effects for the three bioassays. These bioassays are effective tests for assessing the genotoxic effects of radioactive 137Cs pollution.     

Long-term investigation of anthropogenic and naturally occurring radionuclides at reference sites in western Sweden

In case of an accidental release of radioactive substances into the environment, it is important to quickly and reliably estimate the radiation dose received by people in the affected area, and to determine the extent of the contamination. Measurements of the extent of the release and the subsequent contamination can be facilitated if there are predetermined reference sampling sites with known background radiation and inventory of radionuclides. Since 1996, 34 reference sites for soil sampling, field gamma, and intensimeter measurements have been established in western Sweden. Time series data for dose rates and radioisotope inventory have been collected at these sites, allowing for the investigation of changes in these parameters over time. The mass activity densities for the uranium and thorium series elements varied approximately between 10 and 50 Bq/kg and between 10 and 40 Bq/kg, respectively. The mass activity density of ⁴⁰K was approximately in the range 300–800 Bq/kg. The radiation exposure due to ¹³⁷Cs was rather small in this area. The dose rates calculated from in situ measurement data showed that the contribution to the total dose rate was almost entirely due to naturally occurring radionuclides. The measured dose rate was about twice as high as the calculated rate, even after subtracting the contribution from cosmic radiation. This may be explained by the fact that intensimeters generally are calibrated to measure the quantity ambient dose equivalent, which should not underestimate the effective dose.     

经济集聚对雾霾污染影响的空间计量研究——以长江三角洲地区为例

雾霾污染是困扰中国经济发展的重大民生与环境问题。基于改进产出密度模型,运用地统计和空间计量模型分析长三角城市2015~2017年雾霾污染空间格局和影响因素。研究发现：（1）雾霾污染存在季节性变化特征并且各城市雾霾污染状况逐渐好转。（2）雾霾污染具有显著的局域集聚特征和空间异质性,杭州、宁波和台州呈现低－低集聚特征,而滁州、扬州、镇江和泰州为高－高集聚型,污染区域集中于省界处,污染程度自西北向东南逐渐降低。雾霾污染存在显著的城际空间正相关和空间溢出效应,周边城市雾霾污染对本地区会产生负影响。（3）长三角城市人口集聚、研发投入、产业结构、工业烟粉尘排放及城市建设均对雾霾污染产生正向影响,对外开放、能源消耗以及降水等因素对雾霾污染产生负向影响;雾霾污染与经济增长之间不存在库兹涅茨曲线关系。经济集聚通过优化生产要素的空间分布与组合、共享治污基础设施等,形成雾霾污染抑制作用。     

Radioactive impact in sediments from an estuarine system affected by industrial wastes releases

A big fertilizer industrial complex and a vast extension of phosphogypsum piles (12 km2), sited in the estuary formed by the Odiel and Tinto river mouths (southwest of Spain), are producing an unambiguous radioactive impact in their surrounding aquatic environment through radionuclides from the U-series. The levels and distribution of radionuclides in sediments from this estuarine system have been determined. The analyses of radionuclide concentrations and activity ratios have provided us with an interesting information to evaluate the extension, degree and routes of the radioactive impact, as well as for the knowledge of the different pathways followed for the radioactive contamination to disturb this natural system. The obtained results indicate that the main pathway of radioactive contamination of the estuary is through the dissolution in its waters of the radionuclides released by the industrial activities and their later fixation on the particulate materials. Tidal activity also plays an important role in the transport and homogenization along the estuary of the radioactivity released from the fertilizer plants.     

Estimation of critical loads for radiocaesium in Fennoscandia and Northwest Russia

The application of the critical loads methodology for radioactive contamination of Arctic and sub-arctic ecosystems, where natural and semi-natural food products are important components of the diet of many people, is proposed and discussed. The critical load is herein defined as the amount of radionuclide deposition necessary to produce radionuclide activity concentrations in food products exceeding intervention limits. The high transfer of radiocaesium to reindeer meat gives this product the lowest critical load, even though the intervention limit is relatively high compared with other products. Ecological half-lives of radiocaesium in natural and semi-natural products are often very long, and it is therefore important to take account of contamination already present in the event of an accident affecting areas where such products are important. In particular, the long ecological half-life for radiocaesium in moose meat means that the critical load is highly sensitive to prior deposition. An example of the potential application of the method for emergency preparedness is given for the Chernobyl accident.     

Determining when contamination is pollution - weight of evidence determinations for sediments and effluents

Contamination is simply the presence of a substance where it should not be or at concentrations above background. Pollution is contamination that results in or can result in adverse biological effects to resident communities. All pollutants are contaminants, but not all contaminants are pollutants. Differentiating pollution from contamination cannot be done solely on the basis of chemical analyses because such analyses provide no information on bioavailability or on toxicity. Effects-based measures such as laboratory or field toxicity tests and measures of the status of resident, exposed communities provide key information, but cannot be used independently to determine pollution status. Laboratory studies can be predictive, but are rarely realistic. Measures of resident communities include innate natural variability and cannot easily distinguish between adaptation to contamination (a genetic process) and acclimation (a physiological process that may decrease energy reserves, possibly reducing such critical population-level parameters as reproduction). Finally, contaminant effects may not only be direct but also indirect; predicting such effects requires knowledge of the system under study as well as appropriate use of lines of evidence (LOE) such as toxicity tests directed to key species. Consequently, in sediments, effluents or other inputs/environmental compartments, determining when contamination is or may in future become pollution, requires a weight of evidence (WOE) assessment using different LOE appropriate to the situation under investigation. WOE investigations provide two different types of information: definitive conclusions regarding pollution; or, information as to what additional, investigative studies are necessary for definitive conclusions. Effectively, a WOE assessment comprises an initial screening-level ecological risk assessment (ERA), which may be followed by a detailed-level ERA if key uncertainties need to be resolved.     

Impacts of soil and water pollution on food safety and health risks in China

Environmental pollution and food safety are two of the most important issues of our time. Soil and water pollution, in particular, have historically impacted on food safety which represents an important threat to human health. Nowhere has that situation been more complex and challenging than in China, where a combination of pollution and an increasing food safety risk have affected a large part of the population. Water scarcity, pesticide over-application, and chemical pollutants are considered to be the most important factors impacting on food safety in China. Inadequate quantity and quality of surface water resources in China have led to the long-term use of waste-water irrigation to fulfill the water requirements for agricultural production. In some regions this has caused serious agricultural land and food pollution, especially for heavy metals. It is important, therefore, that issues threatening food safety such as combined pesticide residues and heavy metal pollution are addressed to reduce risks to human health. The increasing negative effects on food safety from water and soil pollution have put more people at risk of carcinogenic diseases, potentially contributing to ‘cancer villages’ which appear to correlate strongly with the main food producing areas. Currently in China, food safety policies are not integrated with soil and water pollution management policies. Here, a comprehensive map of both soil and water pollution threats to food safety in China is presented and integrated policies addressing soil and water pollution for achieving food safety are suggested to provide a holistic approach.     

Impacts of sewage irrigation on heavy metal distribution and contamination in Beijing, China

A potential hazard to Beijing was revealed due to the accumulation trend of heavy metals in agricultural soils with sewage irrigation, which results in metal contamination and human exposure risk. Samples including soils and plants were collected to assess the impacts of sewage irrigation on the irrigated farming area of Beijing. Concentrations of the five elements Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn, and Pb were determined in samples to calculate the accumulation factor and to establish a basis for environmental protection and the suitability of sewage irrigation for particular land use in the urban-rural interaction area of Beijing. Using reference values provided by the Beijing Background Research Cooperative Group in the 1970s, the pollution load index (PLI), enrichment factor (EF), and contamination factor (CF) of these metals were calculated. The pollution load indices (sewage irrigation land 3.49) of soils indicated that metal contamination occurred in these sites. The metal enrichment (EF of Cd 1.8, Cr 1.7, Cu 2.3, Zn 2.0, Pb 1.9) and the metal contamination (CF of Cd 2.6, Cr 1.5, Cu 2.0, Zn 1.7, Pb 1.6) showed that the accumulation trend of the five toxic metals increased during the sewage irrigation as compared with the lower reference values than other region in China and world average, and that pollution with Cd, Cu, Zn, and Pb was exacerbated in soils. The distributions of these metals were homogeneous in the irrigation area, but small-scale heterogeneous spatial distribution was observed. Irrigation sources were found to affect heavy metal distributions in soils. It was suggested that heavy metal transfer from soils to plants was a key pathway to human health exposure to metal contamination. However, with the expansion of urban areas in Beijing, soil inhalation and ingestion may become important pathways of human exposure to metal contamination.     

Pathways of adaptation of common dandelion cenopopulations to long-term chemical and radiation influences

A comparative study of the seed progeny of dandelions was performed with samples from cenopopulations growing for a long time under conditions of radioactive contamination (the zone of the Eastern Ural Radioactive Trace, EURT) or chemical pollution (the impact zone of the Nizhnii Tagil Metallurgical Plant, NTMP). The viability of seeds proved to decrease in a similar way along with an increase in technogenic pressure, irrespective of its nature. Experiments on acute exposure to heavy metals and γ-irradiation made it possible to reveal the adaptive capacities of the seed progeny from each cenopopulation. The background sample (formed beyond the zone of any impact) was relatively resistant to irradiation and very sensitive to heavy metals. The cenopopulations from the EURT and NTMP zones manifested nonspecific responses to the effects of both habitual and new factors.     

核电与核废物管理

核能是一种能量密度大、稳定性好、燃料运输量小、综合经济效益好的能源。世界各国核电在总发电量中的比例逐年上升,1992年达17％,而我国仅占0.1％。在目前我国电力短缺的条件下,发展核电、提高核电在总电量中的比例,不失为我国发展能源工业的一个战略目标。在发展核电过程中,要重视核废物的处理和处置,以保证人类健康和环境免遭放射性的污染。     

On-site radioactive soil contamination at the Andreeva Bay shore technical base, Northwest Russia

The radioactive waste (RAW) storage site at Andreeva Bay in the Russian Northwest has experienced radioactive contamination both as a result of activities carried out at the site and due to incidents that have occurred there in the past such as accidental releases of radioactive materials. The site is an interesting case study for decommissioning due to the extremely large amounts of radioactivity present at the site and the conditions under which it is stored; very little has been previously published in the scientific literature about this site. This paper complements the paper describing dose rates at Andreeva Bay which is published in this issue of Journal of Environmental Radioactivity by the same authors. This study presents new data related to the activity concentrations of (137)Cs and (90)Sr in surface soils and measurements of alpha- and beta-particle fluxes taken at different areas around the site. Limited data on 60Co is also presented. The results of the study indicate that the main areas of site contamination are associated with the former spent nuclear fuel storage facility at Building 5, due to accidental discharges which began in 1982. Substantial contamination is also observed at the solid radioactive waste storage facilities, probably due to the ingress of water into these facilities. More than 240 samples were measured: maximum contamination levels were 1 x 10(6)Bq/kg (137)Cs (mean value 4.1 x 10(5)Bq/kg) and 4 x 10(6)Bq/kg (90)Sr (mean value 1.2 x1 0(5)Bq/kg). Localised patches of alpha and beta contamination were also observed throughout the site.     

Applying radioecology in a world of multiple contaminants

This paper presents a review of the current status of radioecology and how it might be applied to contribute to a broader range of environmental pollution and contamination problems. In many respects radioecology is a unique and specialised branch of environmental science. However, radioecologists could be much more aware of the similarities and differences between their field and other fields of environmental pollution science. Areas of common interest described herein are exposure and risk assessment, and the problem of the bioavailability of potentially toxic substances in environmental media. It is concluded that radiometric methods and radioecological modelling methods can assist significantly with understanding and quantifying both these issues. The existence of multiple contaminants at many locations around the world dictates that assessment and remediation exercises should be carried out in an integrated fashion, as a partnership between scientific disciplines.     

Aquatic mosses as a monitoring tool for 137Cs contamination in streams and rivers-a field study from central southern Norway

Mosses are frequently used as biomonitors for trace element pollution in the aquatic environment. The purpose of this study was to assess their usefulness as a tool in monitoring and in regional surveys of radioactive contamination. Specimens of the aquatic mosses, Fontinalis antipyretica and F. dalecarlica, were transplanted from non-contaminated areas to streams and rivers in the Norwegian Jotunheimen Mountains and neighbouring lowland areas that had received radioactive fallout after the Chernobyl accident. Equilibrium concentrations of 137Cs in the exposed mosses were reached after a few weeks. Two series from 20 streams in 1994 and 1996 show linear correlations between activities in water and moss samples and biomagnification ratios of 10(4) - 10(5). We conclude that mosses are better suited for monitoring purposes than water samples, because they provide values integrated over weeks while the radioactivity in surface waters can be subject to rapid variations according to hydrological events. The activity concentrations in aquatic mosses can be easily measured with good precision even when aqueous concentrations are below the limit of detection. Use of aquatic mosses also reduces the logistic problems of transporting large volumes of water, especially in areas inaccessible by road.     

Lake fish as the main contributor of internal dose to lakeshore residents in the Chernobyl contaminated area

Two field expeditions in 1996 studied 137Cs intake patterns and its content in the bodies of adult residents from the village Kozhany in the Bryansk region, Russia, located on the shore of a drainless peat lake in an area subjected to significant radioactive contamination after the 1986 Chernobyl accident. The 137Cs contents in lake water and fish were two orders of magnitude greater than in local rivers and flow-through lakes, 10 years after Chernobyl radioactive contamination, and remain stable. The 137Cs content in lake fish and a mixture of forest mushrooms was between approximately 10-20 kBq/kg, which exceeded the temporary Russian permissible levels for these products by a factor of 20-40. Consumption of lake fish gave the main contribution to internal doses (40-50%) for Kozhany village inhabitants Simple countermeasures, such as Prussian blue doses for dairy cows and pre-boiling mushrooms and fish before cooking, halved the 137Cs internal dose to inhabitants, even 10 years after the radioactive fallout.     

An evaluation of fishery co-management experience in an Amazonian black-water river (Unini River,Amazon, Brazil)

We evaluated the implementation of a fishing agreement, which was created by negotiation among all users of the resources as a co-management strategy because its definition was a result of meetings between all users of the resources. The fishing agreement was implemented in Unini River, a tributary of the right bank of Negro River. Our approach was based on the perception of the people who live in that area, called ribeirinhos. The management strategy was based on spatial distribution of the different types of fishing. We used two logistic regression models to identify the variables which are important to determine the previous concordance and satisfaction with the agreement. First, we analyzed the initial effort to implement the agreement. The variable that influenced the decision of support for the agreement and satisfaction with the results of agreement in both models was the distance from the interviewee’s residence to the sport fishing area. The results showed that the perception of improvement in well-being of the communities and structured social organization are crucial for the success of the co-management strategy.     

Trace element pollution records in some UK lake sediments, their history, influence factors and regional differences

Sediment cores were taken from six sites across the UK. Apart from Banbury Reservoir in London, all the other sites are relatively remote lakes. Trace elements Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Sn, As and V, major elements such as Fe, Mn, Ti and Al were analysed, and organic content measured as loss-on-ignition was determined in all of these cores. The result shows that these relatively remote sites have experienced enhanced atmospheric deposition of anthropogenically derived trace elements for over 100 years, and the contamination might start before industrialisation. Trace metal contamination remains the highest level at Banbury Reservoir showing "pollution source" influence. Despite the considerable reduction in atmospheric deposition in recent years, although some of the element concentrations in the surface sediments have declined, they are still much higher than their natural background values. In these sites, trace element pollution records have been influenced by many different factors. Redox condition could affect As distribution in the sediments. Sediment matrix could also affect trace element pollution signal. Apart from direct atmospheric deposition, the distributions of trace elements in the sediments have been affected by forestry activities and catchment erosion, and more contaminated soil in-wash could increase sediment pollution whilst less contaminated soil could dilute sediment pollution. In some sites, data suggest that catchment in-wash is an important source of elements for the lakes.     

Experimental studies on the deposition to crops of radioactive gases released from gas-cooled reactors--III. Carbon-14 dioxide

Experimental studies were performed under controlled environmental conditions to determine the deposition and subsequent allocation of carbon-14, following a short-term fumigation of major British crops with 14CO2. The deposition velocities varied between 0.075 and 1.32 cm3 g-1 s-1 and 0.0008 and 0.157 cm s-1 on weight and area bases, respectively. The primary sites of deposition were leaves, although other organs, e.g. ears and pods, were increasingly important as the crops developed. Activity was allocated post-deposition to those crop components actively growing at the time of deposition. The allocation was generally completed 24 h after fumigation, the exceptions to this being those crops where reproductive organs developed after the fumigation. A single exponential function was the best fit for the loss of activity from the crops. The data are discussed in the context of modelling carbon-14 contamination of crops following radioactive discharges.