Species diversity reduces parasite infection through cross-generational effects on host abundance

With growing interest in the effects of biodiversity on disease, there is a critical need for studies that empirically identify the mechanisms underlying the diversity-disease relationship. Here, we combined wetland surveys of host community structure with mechanistic experiments involving a multi-host parasite to evaluate competing explanations for the dilution effect. Sampling of 320 wetlands in California indicated that snail host communities were strongly nested, with competent hosts for the trematode Ribeiroia ondatrae predominating in low-richness assemblages and unsuitable hosts increasingly present in more diverse communities. Moreover, competent host density was negatively associated with increases in snail species richness. These patterns in host community assembly support a key prerequisite underlying the dilution effect. Results of multigenerational mesocosm experiments designed to mimic field-observed community assemblages allowed us to evaluate the relative importance of host density and diversity in influencing parasite infection success. Increases in snail species richness (from one to four species) had sharply negative effects on the density of infected hosts (-90% reduction). However, this effect was indirect; competition associated with non-host species led to a 95% reduction in host density (susceptible host regulation), owing primarily to a reduction in host reproduction. Among susceptible hosts, there were no differences in infection prevalence as a function of community structure, indicating a lack of support for a direct effect of diversity on infection (encounter reduction). In monospecific conditions, higher initial host densities increased infection among adult hosts; however, compensatory reproduction in the low-density treatments equalized the final number of infected hosts by the next generation, underscoring the relevance of multigenerational studies in understanding the dilution effect. These findings highlight the role of interspecific competition in mediating the relationship between species richness and parasite infection and emphasize the importance of field-informed experimental research in understanding mechanisms underlying the diversity-disease relationship.     

Forest age influences oak insect herbivore community structure, richness, and density.

Plant succession is one of many factors that may affect the composition and structure of herbivorous insect communities. However, few studies have examined the effect of forest age on the diversity and abundance of insect communities. If forest age influences insect diversity, then the schedule of timber harvest rotation may have consequent effects on biodiversity. The insect herbivore community on Quercus alba (white oak) in the Missouri Ozarks was sampled in a chronoseries, from recently harvested (2 yr) to old-growth (approximately 313 yr) forests. A total of nine sites and 39 stands within those sites were sampled in May and August 2003. Unique communities of plants and insects were found in the oldest forests (122-313 yr). Density and species richness of herbivores were positively correlated with increasing forest age in August but not in May. August insect density was negatively correlated with heat load index; in addition, insect density and richness increased over the chronoseries, but not on the sunniest slopes. Forest structural diversity (number of size classes) was positively correlated with forest age, but woody plant species richness was not. In sum, richness, density, and community structure of white oak insect herbivores are influenced by variation in forest age, forest structure, relative abundance of plant species, and abiotic conditions. These results suggest that time between harvests of large, long-lived, tree species such as white oak should be longer than current practice in order to maintain insect community diversity.     

冀北山区森林群落草本多样性及其与地形关系研究

通过野外调查取样,应用Menhinick丰富度指数、Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou均匀度指数研究了冀北山区12种典型森林群落内的草本植物多样性规律,并采用典范对应分析（CCA）方法研究其分布与地形的关系。结果表明：不同的群落类型草本植物的组成和多样性指数不同,山杨（Populus davidiana）纯林的种数最多为34种,黑桦（Betula dahurica Pall）纯林的种数最少为19种,其Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数最高,分别为0.927 3和2.879 6;在1 200～1 700 m之间,随海拔升高物种多样性指数、均匀度指数和丰富度指数呈正相关性,但没有线性上升的趋势关系;选取的地形因子对样点草本的影响程度大小为：坡向〉海拔〉坡度〉坡位〉坡形,坡向是样点草本植物空间差异的最主要地形制约因子,环境解释率为98.7%,证明排序可信。     

Host-plant genotypic diversity mediates the distribution of an ecosystem engineer

Ecosystem engineers affect ecological communities by physically modifying the environment. Understanding the factors determining the distribution of engineers offers a powerful predictive tool for community ecology. In this study, we examine whether the goldenrod bunch gall midge (Rhopalomyia solidaginis) functions as an ecosystem engineer in an old-field ecosystem by altering the composition of arthropod species associated with a dominant host plant, Solidago altissima. We also examine the suite of factors that could affect the distribution and abundance of this ecosystem engineer. The presence of bunch galls increased species richness and altered the structure of associated arthropod communities. The best predictors of gall abundance were host-plant genotype and plot-level genotypic diversity. We found positive, nonadditive effects of genotypic diversity on gall abundance. Our results indicate that incorporating a genetic component in studies of ecosystem engineers can help predict their distribution and abundance, and ultimately their effects on biodiversity.     

Beyond Species Richness: Community Similarity as a Measure of Cross-Taxon Congruence for Coarse-Filter Conservation

Abstract:  The use of a surrogate taxon in conservation planning has become questionable because recent evidence suggests that the correlation of species richness between pairs of taxa is highly variable both taxonomically and geographically. Species richness is only one measure of species diversity, however, and recent studies suggest that investigations of cross-taxon congruence should consider a broader range of assessment techniques. The cross-taxon congruence of community similarity between sites among taxa has rarely been examined and may be the most relevant measure of species diversity in the context of coarse-filter conservation strategies. We examined cross-taxon congruence patterns of species richness and community similarity (Bray-Curtis similarity) among birds, butterflies, and vascular plants in montane meadow habitats in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Although patterns of species richness (Spearman rank correlation) varied between taxa, we consistently found a positive correlation in community similarity (Mantel test) between all pair-wise comparisons of the three taxa (e.g., sites with similar bird communities also had similar butterfly communities). We suggest that the success of a surrogate taxon depends on the technique used to assess surrogacy and the specific approach to conservation planning. In the context of coarse-filter conservation, measures of community similarity may be more appropriate than measures of species richness. Furthermore, the cross-taxon congruency of community similarity in our study suggests that coarse-filter conservation may be tenable in montane meadow communities.     

Species diversity variation of Cupressus funebris secondary forest in landslide site after 5.12 Wenchuan Earthquake北大核心CSCD

The characteristics of species diversity in Cupressus funebris secondary forest under the effect of geological hazard were explored by selecting the typical landslide surface of Fenghuang Mountain, Leigu Town, Beichuan County, which was derived from the 5.12 Wenchuan earthquake. The results showed that 93 species belonged to 42 families, and 78 genera were found in the landslide area, where the main families were Compositae, Leguminosae, and Gramineae-based. Further, 97 species in the transition area belonged to 39 families and 80 genera, and the main families were Compositae, Gramineae, and Rosaceae-based. In all, 108 species were recorded in the non-landslide area, which belonged to 59 families and 92 genera, the main families of which were Compositae, Rosaceae, and Gramineae-based. Compositae and Gramineae played important roles in the landslide recovery process after earthquake. The Pielou index (JSW) was the highest in the non-landslide area of the herb layer, whereas the richness index (D) was the lowest; the Shannon-Wiener index (H) and Simpson index (H') showed medium values. In the non-landslide area, the D, H, and H' were the highest in the shrub layer, whereas the JSW was the lowest. Further, the species diversity index of the transitional area was higher than that of the landslide area. In the tree layer, the D and H were both the highest and lowest in the landslide area and transition area, respectively. In contrast, the H' and JSW were the highest in the transition area and the lowest in the non-landslide area. The distribution of vegetation was generally consistent with the distribution of soil nutrients in the spatial distribution of surface soil nutrients. The succession of trees in the landslide area was relatively slow and at the initial stage, and the pioneer species were Coriaria nepalensis, Leptopus chinensis, and Arthraxon lanceolatus in this area. Taken together, the findings suggested that the stability of a plant community can be increased by improving the soil and stabilizing the slope. © 2018 Science Press. All rights reserved.     

Species richness and stand stability in conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada

Theoretical and empirical studies have long suggested that stability and complexity are intimately related, but evidence from long-lived systems at large scales is lacking. Stability can either be driven by complex species interactions, or it can be driven by the presence/absence and abundance of a species best able to perform a specific ecosystem function. We use 64 years of stand productivity measures in forest systems composed of four dominant conifer tree species to contrast the effect of species richness and abundance on three stability measures. To perform this contrast, we measured the annual growth increments of > 900 trees in mixed and pure forest stands to test three hypotheses: increased species richness will (1) decrease stand variance, (2) increase stand resistance to drought events, and (3) increase stand resilience to drought events. In each case, the alternate hypothesis was that species richness had no effect, but that species composition and abundance within a stand drove variance, resistance, and resilience. In pure stands, the four species demonstrated significant differences in productivity, and in their resistance and resilience to drought events. The two pine species were the most drought resistant and resilient, whereas mountain hemlock was the least resistant and resilient, and red fir was intermediate. For community measures we found a moderately significant (P = 0.08) increase in the community coefficient of variation and a significant (P = 0.03) increase in resilience with increased species richness, but no significant relationship between species richness and community resistance, though the variance in community resistance to drought decreased with species richness. Community resistance to drought was significantly (P = 0.001) correlated to the relative abundance of lodgepole pine, the most resistant species. We propose that resistance is driven by competition for a single limiting resource, with negative diversity effects. In contrast resilience measures the capacity of communities to partition resources in the absence of a single limiting resource, demonstrating positive diversity effects.     

Effects of productivity on biodiversity in forest ecosystems across the United States and China

In the global campaign against biodiversity loss in forest ecosystems, land managers need to know the status of forest biodiversity, but practical guidelines for conserving biodiversity in forest management are lacking. A major obstacle is the incomplete understanding of the relationship between site primary productivity and plant diversity, due to insufficient ecosystem‐wide data, especially for taxonomically and structurally diverse forest ecosystems. We investigated the effects of site productivity (the site's inherent capacity to grow timber) on tree species richness across 19 types of forest ecosystems in North America and China through 3 ground‐sourced forest inventory data sets (U.S. Forest Inventory and Analysis, Cooperative Alaska Forest Inventory, and Chinese Forest Management Planning Inventory). All forest types conformed to a consistent and highly significant (P < 0.001) hump‐shaped unimodal relationship, of which the generalized coefficients of determination averaged 20.5% over all the forest types. That is, tree species richness first increased as productivity increased at a progressively slower rate, and, after reaching a maximum, richness started to decline. Our consistent findings suggest that forests of high productivity would sustain few species because they consist mostly of flat homogeneous areas lacking an environmental gradient along which a diversity of species with different habitats can coexist. The consistency of the productivity–biodiversity relationship among the 3 data sets we examined makes it possible to quantify the expected tree species richness that a forest stand is capable of sustaining, and a comparison between the actual species richness and the sustainable values can be useful in prioritizing conservation efforts.     

Ecological Biodiversity of Marine Nematodes in Samples from Temperate, Tropical, and Deep-Sea Regions

Little is known about the biodiversity of free-living nematodes. We have attempted to provide baseline information about the natural diversities (those not influenced by pollution) that might be expected in six biotopes. Seventeen marine nematode data sets consisting of 197 samples were standardized to allow a comparison of alpha diversity, or sample diversity, from temperate estuarine, tropical sublittoral, temperate sublittoral, bathyal, abyssal, and hadal biotopes, which were selected on criteria of depth and latitude. The diversity analysis methods we employed were rarefaction curves; three weighted diversity indices of species richness, SR, H', and ES(X); and two equitability indices, J' and V. Diversity was significantly different in the six biotopes. The weighted indices of species richness were more capable of resolving differences between the biotopes than were the equitability indices, whose large standard errors suggested that they were more influenced by local, small-scale ecological factors. This suggests that species richness is a better measure than equitability for large-scale comparisons of biotopes or regions. The ES(X), which is robust to sample size variations, was more efficient than the weighted indices of species richness, which were easily influenced by sample size. There was a nonlinear relationship between depth and diversity with the bathyal and abyssal biotopes displaying the highest diversity. The tropical sublittoral biotope was not more diverse than the temperate sublittoral biotope. The lowest diversities were found in the physically challenging temperate estuarine and hadal biotopes.     

植物多样性对土壤微生物的影响

生物多样性强烈地影响生态系统的过程.生态系统过程的变化可导致生物多样性衰减并因此导致生态系统功能衰退.植物种丰度和植物功能多样性对土壤细菌群落的代谢活性和代谢多样性有成正比的影响.土壤细菌的代谢活性和代谢多样性随植物种数量的对数和植物功能组的数量而直线上升.其原因可能是由植被流入土壤的物质和能量的多样性和数量的增加,也可能是由土壤动物区系起作用的土壤微生境的多样性的增加造成的.由于植物多样性的丧失所引起的植物生物量的减少对分解者群落有强烈的影响微生物生物量将可能减少,因为在大多数陆地生态系统中,有机碳源限制着土壤微生物的活性.     

Is the effect of forest structure on bird diversity modified by forest productivity?

Currently, the most common strategy when managing forests for biodiversity at the landscape scale is to maintain structural complexity within stands and provide a variety of seral stages across landscapes. Advances in ecological theory reveal that biodiversity at continental scales is strongly influenced by available energy (i.e., climate factors relating to heat and light and primary productivity). This paper explores how available energy and forest structural complexity may interact to drive biodiversity at a regional scale. We hypothesized that bird species richness exhibits a hump-shaped relationship with energy at the regional scale of the northwestern United States. As a result, we hypothesized that the relationship between energy and richness within a landscape is positive in energy-limited landscapes and flat or decreasing in energy-rich landscapes. Additionally, we hypothesized that structural complexity explains less of the variation in species richness in energy-limited environments and more in energy-rich environments and that the slope of the relationship between structural complexity and richness is greatest in energy-rich environments. We sampled bird communities and vegetation across seral stages and biophysical settings at each of five landscapes arrayed across a productivity gradient from the Pacific Coast to the Rocky Mountains within the five northwestern states of the contiguous United States. We analyzed the response of richness to structural complexity and energy covariates at each landscape. We found that (1) richness had a hump-shaped relationship with available energy across the northwestern United States, (2) the landscape-scale relationships between energy and richness were positive or hump shaped in energy-limited locations and were flat or negative in energy-rich locations, (3) forest structural complexity explained more of the variation in bird species richness in energy-rich landscapes, and (4) the slope of the relationship between forest structural complexity and richness was steepest in energy-limited locations. In energy-rich locations, forest managers will likely increase landscape-scale bird diversity by providing a range of forest structural complexity across all seral stages. In low-energy environments, bird diversity will likely be maximized by managing local high-energy hotspots judiciously and adjusting harvest intensities in other locations to compensate for slower regeneration rates.     

南亚热带森林3层次物种多度之广义泊松分布模型

生物群落中物种多度分布(species abundance distribution)呈典型的倒J形,即其中存在许多稀有种、少量常见种.物种多度分布模型研究有助于解决森林生态恢复中的物种配置等实际问题.本研究考察了一种过分散(over-dispersion,或称超分布,即方差大于均值)的离散型分布,即具有λ和α两个参数...     

Parasitism at the Landscape Scale: Cowbirds Prefer Forests

Landscape-scale examination of parasitism patterns of Brown-headed Cowbirds ( Molothrus ater ) revealed heterogeneous parasitism rates across the mosaic of a forest and associated old-field communities. In a two year study in Dutchess County, New York, we found a significantly higher parasitism rate in the forest-interior community ( n = 301 nests; 17 species) than on the species in the adjacent and nearby old field and edge ( n = 328 nests; 15 species; 32.3% versus 6.5%; p < 0.0001). Cowbirds invaded a mature 1300-ha forest stand even when their traditional host species were available in adjacent old-field and edge habitats. The forest and old-field study areas were located in a 38,000-ha township with 55% forest cover and contained numerous agriculture, dairy, and horse farms that provided favorable habitat for cowbirds. Within-forest examination of parasitism patterns revealed four aspects of cowbird parasitism that contrasted with patterns described in other regions: (1) parasitism was concentrated significantly more often on ground- and low-nesting (nests ≤ 1 m) forest species than on medium- and high-nesting species (nests> 1 m; 35.01% versus 29.93%; p = 0.0393); (2) parasitism was not significantly greater on Neotropical migrant species than on short-distance migrants and residents; (3) the parasitism rate was not higher in nests close to edges; and (4) the parasitism level was low on certain forest species (such as Wood Thrush) that have experienced high parasitism levels in the Midwest. From a management perspective these data suggest that cowbirds exhibit regional differences in host and habitat use; the target host community of a particular cowbird population is unpredictable at the landscape scale; and a landscape scale should be used in designing cowbird studies to accurately assess local population dynamics.     

CO2-enrichment and nutrient availability alter ectomycorrhizal fungal communities

Ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF), a phylogenetically and physiologically diverse guild, form symbiotic associations with many trees and greatly enhance their uptake of nutrients and water. Elevated CO2, which increases plant carbon supply and demand for mineral nutrients, may change the composition of the EMF community, possibly altering nutrient uptake and ultimately forest productivity. To assess CO2 effects on EMF communities, we sampled mycorrhizae from the FACTS-I (Forest-Atmosphere Carbon Transfer and Storage) research site in Duke Forest, Orange County, North Carolina, USA, where Pinus taeda forest plots are maintained at either ambient or elevated CO2 (200 ppm above ambient) concentrations. Mycorrhizae were identified by DNA sequence similarity of the internal transcribed spacer ribosomal RNA gene region. EMF richness was very high; 72 distinct phylotypes were detected from 411 mycorrhizal samples. Overall EMF richness and diversity were not affected by elevated CO2, but increased CO2 concentrations altered the relative abundances of particular EMF taxa colonizing fine roots, increased prevalence of unique EMF species, and led to greater EMF community dissimilarity among individual study plots. Natural variation among plots in mean potential net nitrogen (N) mineralization rates was a key determinant of EMF community structure; increasing net N mineralization rate was negatively correlated with EMF richness and had differential effects on the abundance of particular EMF taxa. Our results predict that, at CO2 concentrations comparable to that predicted for the year 2050, EMF community composition and structure will change, but diversity will be maintained. In contrast, high soil N concentrations can negatively affect EMF diversity; this underscores the importance of considering CO2 effects on forest ecosystems in the context of background soil chemical parameters and other environmental perturbations such as acid deposition or fertilizer runoff.     

古田山国家级自然保护区常绿阔叶林类型及其群落物种多样性研究

在群落调查的基础上，分析了古田山自然保护区常绿阔叶林的群落类型和群落物种多样性特征．结果表明：古田山自然保护区常绿阔叶林主要有6种类型(群系)，即甜槠林、栲树林、野含笑-钩栗林、青冈林、虎皮楠-甜槠林、乌冈栎-青冈林，并对各群落类型的结构和物种组成进行了描述．从各群落的外貌、结构和种类组成上看，均具有我国典型常绿阔叶林的基本特征．不同群落类型其物种多样性大小不同，栲树林和野含笑-钩栗林物种多样性较高，虎皮楠-甜槠林和乌冈栎-青冈林物种多样性较低．在群落垂直结构中，灌木层→乔木层→草本层物种多样性依次降低，乔木层与灌木层之间物种多样性差异不显著，草本层的物种丰富度、物种多样性指数均明显小于乔木层和灌木层．与邻近4个山地常绿阔叶林物种多样性相比较，古田山常绿阔叶林物种多样性比纬度位置高的黄山和大别山要大，但比纬度位置低的乌岩岭和缙云山小．     

Soil microbes drive the classic plant diversity-productivity pattern

Ecosystem productivity commonly increases asymptotically with plant species diversity, and determining the mechanisms responsible for this well-known pattern is essential to predict potential changes in ecosystem productivity with ongoing species loss. Previous studies attributed the asymptotic diversity-productivity pattern to plant competition and differential resource use (e.g., niche complementarity). Using an analytical model and a series of experiments, we demonstrate theoretically and empirically that host-specific soil microbes can be major determinants of the diversity-productivity relationship in grasslands. In the presence of soil microbes, plant disease decreased with increasing diversity, and productivity increased nearly 500%, primarily because of the strong effect of density-dependent disease on productivity at low diversity. Correspondingly, disease was higher in plants grown in conspecific-trained soils than heterospecific-trained soils (demonstrating host-specificity), and productivity increased and host-specific disease decreased with increasing community diversity, suggesting that disease was the primary cause of reduced productivity in species-poor treatments. In sterilized, microbe-free soils, the increase in productivity with increasing plant species number was markedly lower than the increase measured in the presence of soil microbes, suggesting that niche complementarity was a weaker determinant of the diversity-productivity relationship. Our results demonstrate that soil microbes play an integral role as determinants of the diversity-productivity relationship.     

黄土区不同配置人工林物种多样性研究

以黄土高原山西省方山县下昔沟流域为研究点,采用标准样地调查法,应用物种丰富度、Simpson指数、Shannon-Wiener指数、群落均匀度指数研究15种不同配置的人工林的а多样性动态特征,结果表明,在立地条件、密度、林龄相同的情况下,油松和刺槐这两种针阔混交林下的灌、草层Shannon-Weiner index、Pielou index、Richness指数最高,Simpson index最低;纯林中阔叶林下的灌、草层Shannon-Weiner index、Pielou index、Richness指数高于针叶林,但Simpson index低于针叶林;针叶林下的灌、草层Shannon-Weiner index、Pielou index、Richness指数最低,但Simpson index最高。研究结果为：针阔混交林更有利于林下植被的发育和更新,加速黄土区生态系统的恢复。     

The behaviour of Ailanthus altissima weed and its effects on natural ecosystems

Ailanthus altissima is an invasive species for the native flora of Greece and it could pose a serious threat to the biodiversity and the functioning of ecosystems. The purpose of this study was to investigate the spreading of Ailanthus altissima in urban and non urban areas of North and Central Greece and also to evaluate the effects of its spreading on species composition and floristic diversity in natural ecosystems. The spreading of Ailanthus altissima in urban areas is very intense, mainly in abandoned places (35.29%). It is commonly found in non urban areas of Greece, especially in hedgerows of arable lands (36%) and adjacent wetlands (17%). It is less common in forests (4%), shrublands (11%) and grasslands (9%). The spread of Ailanthus altissima in urban and natural ecosystems is relatively recent. Although it has been recorded at altitudes of up to 640 m, it usually appears at low altitudes of up to 200 m. Floristic diversity was found to be higher in the stands that it dominated (H' = 1.574, H' = 1.890) in comparison to stands that were dominated by Quercuspubescens (H' = 1.468) or Q. coccifera (H' = 1.716). This may be contributed to the fact that in those stands synanthropic species, which are usually found in regions of intense human activity, were present together with typical forest vegetation species.     

Effects of Oil‐Palm Plantations on Diversity of Tropical Anurans

Agriculturally altered vegetation, especially oil‐palm plantations, is rapidly increasing in Southeast Asia. Low species diversity is associated with this commodity, but data on anuran diversity in oil‐palm plantations are lacking. We investigated how anuran biological diversity differs between forest and oil‐palm plantation, and whether observed differences in biological diversity of these areas is linked to specific environmental factors. We hypothesized that biological diversity is lower in plantations and that plantations support a larger proportion of disturbance‐tolerant species than forest. We compared species richness, abundance, and community composition between plantation and forest areas and between site types within plantation and forest (forest stream vs. plantation stream, forest riparian vs. plantation riparian, forest terrestrial vs. plantation terrestrial). Not all measures of biological diversity differed between oil‐palm plantations and secondary forest sites. Anuran community composition, however, differed greatly between forest and plantation, and communities of anurans in plantations contained species that prosper in disturbed areas. Although plantations supported large numbers of breeding anurans, we concluded the community consisted of common species that were of little conservation concern (commonly found species include Fejervarya limnocharis, Microhyla heymonsi, and Hylarana erythrea). We believe that with a number of management interventions, oil‐palm plantations can provide habitat for species that dwell in secondary forests. Efectos de las Plantaciones de Palma de Aceite sobre la Diversidad de Anuros Tropicales Faruk et al.     

Direct and indirect control of grassland community structure by litter, resources, and biomass

Multiple factors linked through complex networks of interaction including fertilization, aboveground biomass, and litter control the diversity of plant communities. The challenge of explaining plant diversity is to determine not only how each individual mechanism directly influences diversity, but how those mechanisms indirectly influence diversity through interactions with other mechanisms. This approach is well established in the study of plant species richness, but surprisingly little effort has been dedicated toward understanding the controls of community evenness, despite the recognition that this aspect of diversity can influence a variety of critical ecosystem functions. Similarly, studies of diversity have predominantly focused on the influence of shoot, rather than root, biomass, despite the fact that the majority of plant biomass is belowground in many natural communities. In this study, I examine the roles of belowground biomass, live aboveground biomass, litter, and light availability in controlling the species richness and evenness of a rough fescue grassland community using structural equation modeling. Litter was the primary mechanism structuring grassland diversity, with both richness and evenness declining with increasing litter cover. There were few relationships between shoot biomass, shading, and diversity, and more importantly, no relationship between root biomass and diversity. The lack of relationship between root biomass and species richness and evenness suggests that, even though root competition in grasslands is intense, belowground interactions may not play an important role in structuring community diversity or composition.