Advancing voluntary chemical governance? The case of the Swedish textile industry dialogue

Voluntary environmental governance is a widely used policy approach that has been criticized for its lack of effectiveness. This raises fundamental questions about how to design processes that can advance voluntary programmes in a way that makes them more successful. In this paper, we analyse a government-initiated dialogue process to phase out hazardous chemicals through voluntary action by the Swedish textile industry. The analysis shows that information transfer primarily motivated business participation, while consumer pressure, regulatory threats and traditions of government–business cooperation played minor roles. The institutional design of the dialogue ensured close interaction within a homogeneous group, but collective actions were limited by disagreement about the problems to be addressed, prior unilateral environmental commitments by leading companies, and ambivalent engagement. This case provides valuable insights into the effect of institutional design on the actual interplay between business and government and its effects on voluntary governance.     

Is the god of diamonds alone? The role of institutions in artisanal mining in forest landscapes,Congo Basin

This paper examines the institutional framework of artisanal mining in the forests of the Sangha Tri-National Landscape (TNS) in the Congo Basin. Artisanal miners in Cameroon and the Central African Republic (CAR) commonly make sacrifices to their god of diamonds, to improve fortunes. This study looks into ‘the other forces’; institutions that play a role in shaping the sector and its outcomes. These institutions comprise formal and informal institutions at a local, national, regional and international level. Although artisanal miners in TNS benefit by gaining cash income, this activity also carries risks as income is highly disparate and environmental impacts in this priority forest conservation area are expected to increase due to the growing competition over land use. It was concluded from a literature review, interviews and site visits that informal arrangements dominate the sector, especially in Cameroon, leading to poor relations between officials and miners and meaning that miners have few rights and no voice. The current institutional setup is inadequate to deal with current and anticipated social and environmental issues. Future interventions need to take into account the existing (local) types of organization, vulnerable groups, the interests of multiple actors and the fact that most miners are experienced but combine mining with other activities, such as agriculture, fishing and harvesting forest products. African initiatives concerning ASM offer opportunities to Cameroon and CAR to collaborate with other countries to combat similar issues. A regional integrated approach of both the forest and mining sector would be especially relevant for trans-boundary agreements, such as concerning the TNS, to reinforce positive outcomes for the landscape and the area's population.     

The toxic release inventory: Fact or fiction? A case study of the primary aluminum industry

Since 1989 manufacturing facilities across the USA must report toxic chemical emissions to the EPA's toxic release inventory (TRI). Public release of this information and increased public scrutiny are believed to significantly contribute to the over 45% reduction in toxic chemical releases since inception of the program and to growing support for this type of informational regulation instead of traditional command-and-control. However, prior research indicates a tendency to under-report emissions. We find specific evidence of under-reporting of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) to the TRI by primary aluminum facilities after promulgation of the industry's maximum available control technology (MACT) standard in 1997. We also find evidence of dislocation of emission overseas due to these regulatory requirements. Additionally, changes in energy prices affected aluminum production and further distort reported PAH emissions levels. This suggests the possibility of more widespread under-reporting that is modulated by various factors, including market conditions and new regulations, and which may partially explain the downward trend in TRI emissions. It also suggests that the quality of TRI data may improve once facilities are subject to monitoring of emissions of a TRI listed pollutant due to command-and-control regulation.     

Rising to the Kyoto challenge: is the response of Canadian industry adequate?

A major weapon in Canada's CO2-emissions reduction arsenal is reliance on moral suasion and voluntary action. In this regard, the Voluntary Challenge and Registry (VCR) program constitutes a major effort to encourage industrial firms to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. In this paper, we begin by providing a critical review of Canadian climate change policy and Canada's international commitments. We then investigate the effectiveness of Canadian policies by analyzing a survey of industrial firms, examining factors that determine firms' familiarity with, participation in and commitment to the VCR program, and their stated potential to reduce emissions by 2008-2012 (Kyoto's commitment period). Results indicate that voluntary programs are unlikely to make a significant contribution to emissions reduction, with industrial firms indicating that, on average, they plan to reduce emissions by some 1-2% below their 1990 level under the current policy approach, much lower than Canada's 6% reduction target.     

What determines the breadth and depth of Zambia's backward linkages to copper mining? The role of public policy and value chain dynamics

This paper investigates the dynamics of upstream linkages development to copper mining in Zambia. The breadth and depth of the local mining supply chain was deeply shaped by policies adopted in the 1990s under the Structural Adjustment Programme. These policies succeeded in attracting much-needed FDI in the mining sector, including Chinese and Indian FDI, but had a negative impact on the level of value-addition undertaken by local suppliers. In the post-privatisation era, the dynamics of the local supply chain suggest that supply firms' upgrading and sales growth were determined by firm ownership and value chain governance. In fact, forward linkages to buyers other than Chinese and Indian mining companies, and backward linkages to parent companies and technology providers were critical in supporting supply firms' success in the mining value chain.     

The paradox of packaging optimization – a characterization of packaging source reduction in the Netherlands

The European Council Directive 94/62/EC for Packaging and Packaging Waste requires that Member States implement packaging waste prevention measures. However, consumption and subsequently packaging waste figures are still growing annually. It suggests that policies to accomplish packaging waste prevention do not suffice, especially since developments are less insightful as these are part of a self-declaring compliance system. This study is aimed at expanding the understanding of packaging source reduction. We collected and evaluated 131 available options implemented in the Netherlands in the period 2005–2010. Lightweighting has been identified as the most frequently applied packaging source reduction method, indicating that the packaging industry prioritizes low-effort and familiar concepts, despite the dichotomy in efficacy.     

Changing places,changing emissions: The cross‐scale reliability of greenhouse gas emission inventories in the US

Abstract

Local authorities are increasingly faced with demands and pressures to become much more responsive to environmental issues. International agreements and national legislation all put an emphasis on the local level as the most appropriate scale for action and on local authorities as the most appropriate bodies to take such action. One area of local authority competence where environmental issues have made a limited impact to date is in economic development. Yet the concept of sustainable development which forms the basis of national and European legislation and policy necessitates the integration of economic development with the environment. In this paper the main features of European policy with regard to the environment are outlined and the implications for European funding of local authority economic development strategies are examined.     

Does multi-functionality affect technical efficiency? A non-parametric analysis of the Scottish dairy industry

Recent policy changes within the Common Agricultural Policy have led to a shift from a solely production-led agriculture towards the promotion of multi-functionality. Conversely, the removal of production-led supports would indicate that an increased concentration on production efficiencies would seem a critical strategy for a country's future competitiveness. This paper explores the relationship between the 'multi-functional' farming attitude desired by policy makers and its effect on technical efficiency within Scottish dairy farming. Technical efficiency scores are calculated by applying the non-parametric data envelopment analysis technique and then measured against causes of inefficiency. Amongst these explanatory factors is a constructed score of multi-functionality. This research finds that, amongst other factors, a multi-functional attitude has a significant positive effect on technical efficiency. Consequently, this seems to validate the promotion of a multi-functional approach to farming currently being championed by policy-makers.     

The role of parental behaviour for the development of behaviour specific environmental norms – The example of recycling and re-use behaviour

Based on the norm activation theory we developed assumptions about how parents may influence specific pro-environmental behaviours (i.e. re-use of paper and recycling) of their children (age 8–10). A sample of 206 parent-child-dyads were investigated using questionnaires recording norm activation model variables for children (i.e. awareness of need, awareness of consequences, personal norm, subjective norm, pro-environmental behaviour), as well as communication behaviour and actual behaviour of parents. For both behaviours (re-use and recycling) two separate structural equation models were tested (N = 206 and N = 194). Model fit statistics indicate a good fit of empirical data and model structure for both behaviours, supporting our assumption that the norm activation model can be applied to pro-environmental behaviour of young children. Communication behaviour of parents had a different influence on the two respective behaviours. While parents seemed to influence their children's recycling behaviour via sanctions and their own behaviour, re-use of paper was mainly influenced via communication of problem knowledge.     

Governing the ungovernable? Reflections on informal gemstone mining in high-altitude borderlands of Gilgit-Baltistan,Pakistan

The ethnically diverse high-altitude region of Gilgit-Baltistan, with its complex political history, remains relatively free from the controlling gaze of the central state apparatus of Pakistan. In these extraordinary terrain, where local communities rule the region as the “State by proxy”, informal gemstone mining provides an important supplement to livelihoods. This paper shows that gemstone mining in Gilgit-Baltistan is characterised by customary rules and regulations that are based on collective responsibility, and members follow customary authorities because they are not external to the community. It argues that the very idea of centralised “governance” of mineral resources, used widely in contexts of resource extraction as the panacea, needs to be reconsidered when dealing with the particularities of the context. It draws on the concept of ungovernability to underline the fact that sometimes it may simply be impossible to administer informal mining in the conventional sense of the term. It suggests in conclusion that informal mining, which has a long history in Pakistan and has played an increasing role as a source of rural employment and revenue, needs to be accommodated within the legal framework of mining. More importantly, to govern informal mining of gemstones, the first task would be to consider how things are currently done, understanding and respecting customary laws, and build upon them to incorporate their elements into systems that acknowledge community rights and a more equitable sharing of benefits.     

Monetary assessment of the recreational benefits of improved water quality – description of a new model and a case study

The European Union Water Framework Directive (WFD) has created a demand for comparing the benefits and costs of the remedial measures. A major part of the benefits from improved water quality relate to the increased recreational value. However, there is a lack of easily operative and widely applicable quantitative methods to assess the benefits of improved water quality for recreational use. We present a new model to link physical indicators of water quality, water feasibility indicators for different recreational uses, individuals’ perceptions concerning the current feasibility of water for recreational purposes and monetary measures of water-related recreation benefits. The model has been applied to nine lakes, three rivers and one large coastal area in Finland. In this paper, we present the principles of the method and the results from one case study. In Finland, the method has been applied for the economic analysis required in the WFD.     

How rational are investment decisions in the copper industry?

This paper examines ex-post 51 investment decisions made in regard to copper mines coming on stream from 1957 through 1999. It discusses two critical variables: investment timing and mine capacity choice. Using a 15% discount rate, results suggest that fewer than half of decisions were made at the right time – i.e., low price periods – confirming countercyclical investment as the optimal policy. In terms of capacity choice, the distortion is even higher, as 36 projects should have entered at least 40% larger or smaller. Realized investment decisions for timing and capacity choice would have caused a 49.1% loss over the NPV potentially achievable under optimal resolutions. Although the difference could be specifically attributed to copper price uncertainty, this paper discusses how investment evaluation methodologies could be contributing to firms not being fully rational (in the neoclassical sense) when investing.     

The climate adaptation imperative: local choices targeting global problems?

When confronted with the demands of global climate change, what causes some policy-makers to move the climate adaptation agenda forward in their communities, while others seemingly get little accomplished? To answer this question, we first discuss work on policy-drivers in a coupled human–natural systemic context. This summary review of past research helps us develop a set of competing and complementary explanations for why some communities aggressively pursue climate adaptation policies, while others do less. Following the discussion of policy-drivers, we then undertake an aggregate-level analysis of data collected across the 169 towns in Connecticut regarding climate adaptation, thus linking policy to its fundamental global cause. The quantitative data are augmented with interview data from policy-makers and activists from around the New England region.     

Compromising sustainable mobility? The case of the Gothenburg congestion tax

Congestion charging is widely considered an effective policy measure to regulate and reduce car traffic demand and associated environmental and health problems in cities. However, introducing restrictive measures to constrain individual choice and behaviour for the common good has often proven difficult. Using a specific case, the Gothenburg congestion tax introduced in 2013, we study the policy process behind the introduction of the tax and assess to what extent green values were compromised along the way. The tax was made possible by co-financing infrastructure investments, including roads, which seemingly contradicts stated goals of reducing car traffic and emissions. We show how the tax was ‘muddled through’ in a top-down political compromise by a grand coalition where different interests could legitimate their support in relation to the achievement of partially conflicting objectives and projects. However, to declare the regulatory goals fully neutralised would be to underestimate the scheme's direct environmental effects and restrictive potential. Finding a compromise with powerful political and economic interests was necessary to get it off the ground. Once launched, however, it can over time regain its restrictive properties and lead to more profound long-term effects.     

Could a public ecology approach help resolve the mountaintop mining controversy?

In recent years, controversy has grown around decisions related to mountaintop removal mining of coal in Central Appalachia, USA. While this mining method can be particularly efficient, it necessitates removal and relocation of huge volumes of earth—permanently altering the natural landform and potentially impacting local environments and communities. Current decision-making systems and regulatory frameworks have been largely ineffective at incorporating the values and concerns of stakeholders. This is due, in part, to contradicting policies, a legacy of distrust, and problems related to scale. Further, the lack of good civic science related to mountaintop mining and meaningful routes for public involvement have also hampered effective decision-making. We propose that the fundamental concepts of public ecology may provide a progressive approach to resolving these complex issues, and examine the challenges that must be met along the way.     

The Right Tree for the Job? Perceptions of Species Suitability for the Provision of Ecosystem Services

Stakeholders in plantation forestry are increasingly aware of the importance of the ecosystem services and non-market values associated with forests. In New Zealand, there is significant interest in establishing species other than Pinus radiata D. Don (the dominant plantation species) in the belief that alternative species are better suited to deliver these services. Significant risk is associated with this position as there is little objective data to support these views. To identify which species were likely to be planted to deliver ecosystem services, a survey was distributed to examine stakeholder perceptions. Stakeholders were asked which of 15 tree attributes contributed to the provision of five ecosystem services (amenity value, bioenergy production, carbon capture, the diversity of native habitat, and erosion control/water quality) and to identify which of 22 candidate tree species possessed those attributes. These data were combined to identify the species perceived most suitable for the delivery of each ecosystem service. Sequoia sempervirens (D.Don) Endl. closely matched the stakeholder derived ideotypes associated with all five ecosystem services. Comparisons to data from growth, physiological and ecological studies demonstrated that many of the opinions held by stakeholders were inaccurate, leading to erroneous assumptions regarding the suitability of most candidate species. Stakeholder perceptions substantially influence tree species selection, and plantations established on the basis of inaccurate opinions are unlikely to deliver the desired outcomes. Attitudinal surveys associated with engagement campaigns are essential to improve stakeholder knowledge, advancing the development of fit-for-purpose forest management that provides the required ecosystem services.     

The effectiveness of state of the environment reporting (SoER) at the local government sphere – a developing country's experience

State of the environment reporting (SoER) is a well-established and widely applied environmental management tool in the South African context. Despite a wealth of knowledge about conducting and preparing SoERs, there is a paucity of research on the effect SoER has had on decision-making at the local government sphere. This study investigated the effect of SoER on decision-making for a sample of municipalities in the Gauteng Province of South Africa. The methodology relied on interviews with key role players, which include the ‘‘environmental function’' as well as ‘‘other functions’' responsible for infrastructure development and planning within the municipalities. The results show that notwithstanding the extensive time and resources spent on SoER, it appears to have had a limited effect on decision-making, especially beyond the environmental function. Recommendations to improve the influence of SoER on decision-making in developing countries include improved clarity on the purpose and home of SoER within municipalities, adequate budget and capacity, and effective cooperative governance both within the municipalities, and with other spheres of government.     

The effect of information on public acceptance – The case of water from alternative sources

This study aims to provide conclusive evidence that information about water from alternative sources increases public acceptance. We conducted an experiment with 1000 Australian respondents asking them about their acceptance of recycled and desalinated water for a range of purposes under two conditions: 1) no information provided and 2) information about the production process provided. Results indicate that – both for desalinated and recycled water – the stated likelihood of use increases significantly if people are provided with information about the production process. This has major implications for public policy makers indicating that providing factual information (as opposed to persuasive campaigns) will increase public support of water augmentation projects.