Correlation of primary production as measured aboard ship in Southern California Coastal waters and as estimated from satellite chlorophyll images

Chlorophyll images suitable for the regional analysis of the Southern California Bight were obtained by satellite (Nimbus-7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner) on 27 February, 6 March and 11 March 1979. An algorithm to convert satellite chlorophyll data to primary production has been developed. In addition, primary production was measured along with other biological and physical factors from ships cruising in the Southern California Bight during late February and early March 1979. There was fair agreement between shipboard measurements and satellite estimations; for example, primary production (mg carbon m^-2 d^-1) averaged 554 mg from shipboard measurement and 403 mg from satellite estimation when averaged for the entire Bight for the course of the study. The high standard error associated with the variance in productivity index used in our algorithm prevented more accurate conversion of chlorophyll concentrations into primary productivity. However, the synoptic data provided by concurrent ship and satellite measurements can be used to quantify, and perhaps reduce, sampling errors associated with ship sampling alone and to provide estimates of the accuracy of primary productivity on a regional basis.     

Applying artificial neural network methodology to ocean color remote sensing

Artificial neural networks (ANN) are widely used as continuous models to fit non-linear transfer functions. In this study we used ANN to retrieve chlorophyll pigments in the near-surface of oceans from Ocean Color measurements. This bio-optical inversion is established by analyzing concomitant sun-light spectral reflectances over the ocean surface and pigment concentration. The relationships are complex, non-linear, and their biological nature implies a significant variability. Moreover, the sun-light reflectances are usually measured by satellite radiometers flying at 800 km over the ocean surface, which affect the data by adding radiometric noise and atmospheric correction errors. By comparison with the polynomial fit usually employed to treat this problem, we show the advantages of neural function approximation like the association of non-linear complexity and noise filtering.     

利用环境一号卫星热红外通道反演太湖流域地表温度的3种方法比较

利用太湖流域2010年3月26日过境的1景环境一号卫星热红外数据(轨道号为451/77),根据同步modis数据反演大气水汽含量参数,分别利用覃志豪单窗算法、普适性单通道算法、基于影像的Artis反演算法反演太湖流域地表温度,通过与同期的MOD11_L2级modis温度产品进行对比分析,探寻适合于环境卫星热红外通道反演地表温度的方法,以达到对环境一号卫星热红外数据定量化应用示范的目的。结果表明,相比其他算法,普适性单通道算法精度较高,与modis温度产品温差较小,为+1.23 K,而环境一号卫星过境时间与modis温度产品时差为39 min,因此该方法的反演精度可以接受。     

A new electronic system for the rectangular midwater trawl (RMT)

This paper describes a modified modern version of the original rectangular midwater trawl (RMT) manufactured by the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences (IOS). The shipboard acoustic transducer and the underwater RMT-monitor were replaced by an electronic interface box was while the data transfer, realized by a single-conductor cable. Using frequency shift keying (FSK) signal transmission, a PC-controlled system onboard handles data acquisition and control as well as real time monitoring of the haul. The volume of water filtered by the net is calculated based on the online readings of a net-angle sensor. The new RMT-system was successfully used in the Antarctic during the European Polarstern Study (EPOS) from October 1988 to March 1989. Fifty-seven tows to a maximum depth of 1000 m in open waters and in ice covered areas were performed.     

Habitat mapping using machine learning-extended kernel-based reclassification of an Ikonos satellite image

The spatial resolution of satellite imagery suitable for earth resources studies has improved from 80 m (Landsat-MSS, launched in 1972) to 0.6 m (QuickBird, launched in 2001). The conventional pixel-based methods developed for medium resolution satellite images are not suitable for classification of very high spatial resolution images, because the spectral responses of particular habitat classes are much more variable. On the other hand, in the original Barnsley–Barr kernel-based reclassification algorithm not only the spectral information of a pixel but also the textural information in the vicinity of the pixel is used when the pixel labeling decision is made. The first step of the kernel reclassification algorithm is to perform an initial classification of the original image. In the second step, the adjacency-event matrices are computed for each pixel according to co-occurrence frequencies of the initial classes in the kernel window. The degree of matching between an adjacency-event matrix corresponding to specific pixel and the set of class-specific template matrices produced during training is the criterion for pixel re-labeling. We extend the original kernel-based reclassification algorithm with a decision tree-based reclassification, simultaneously taking into account the class-specific similarity images, which are a side-product of the original algorithm. The advantage of decision tree-extended approach over the original approach seems to be the ability of the former to consider more input information, thus increasing the Kappa classification accuracy for an Ikonos image of our study area from 0.56 to 0.60, using a nomenclature containing 10 habitat classes.     

Spatial assessment of fin whale hotspots and their association with krill within an important Antarctic feeding and fishing ground

Fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus quoyi) habitat use and its relationship to environmental conditions are generally unknown in the Southern Ocean, presenting challenges for predicting their seasonal occurrence and potential effects of fishing pressure and climate change on this endangered species. Using biological data collected during 14 shipboard surveys off the northern Antarctic Peninsula and oceanographic data from satellite remote sensing, we mapped the distribution of fin whale hotspots, Antarctic krill abundance (biomass from acoustics, concentrations from nets) and ocean conditions during mid- and late-summer to investigate the environmental determinants of whale hotspots. Generalized additive models (GAM) were used to test the hypothesis that intra-seasonal changes in fin whale hotspot distribution relate to sea surface temperature (SST), krill abundance and eddy kinetic energy (EKE). More whale hotspots (sightings and individuals) are observed during late- than mid-summer surveys. During mid-summer, hotspots occurred near Elephant Island while in late-summer they were distributed throughout the slope region in proximity to the mean location of the southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current Front. The spatial mean of EKE did not differ between mid- and late-summer surveys, but the spatial mean of SST was significantly warmer during late-summer. The GAM for mid-summer indicates that fin whale hotspots were positively related to SST, EKE and acoustically determined krill biomass. The GAM for late-summer indicates the hotspots were negatively related to net-based krill abundance and positively related to acoustic krill biomass and EKE. This study is important because environmental determinants of fin whale hotspots may be used as reference points for implementing future conservation plans for their recovering populations.     

Retrospective analysis of spatial and temporal variability of chlorophyll-a in the Curonian Lagoon

The Curonian Lagoon, the largest in Europe (total surface area 1584?km²), is located in the southern part of the Baltic Sea, from which it is separated by a narrow sand bar and to which it is connected by the Klaipeda Straits. It is characterised by shallow eutrophic waters (mean depth 3.8?m) with average low salinity (<5??) due to the nutrient-rich freshwaters discharged by the river Nemunas. Cyanobacteria blooms, including species producing toxic metabolites, have been a frequent phenomenon in summer. In this study a series of MERIS Full Resolution (FR) satellite images acquired between 2004 and 2009 during summer periods were used to assess the temporal evolution and spatial variability of the lagoon water quality in terms of chlorophyll-a. The models/algorithms were calibrated/validated with field data collected in 2009, based on in situ radiometric (remote sensing reflectance -Rrs-) and limnological (chlorophyll-a concentrations -chl-a-) measurements. The chl-a concentrations were estimated by developing a semi-empirical band ratio (Rrs(708)/Rrs(664)) equation applied to MERIS images after correction for atmospheric effects with the 6S code. Results from this study suggest elevated spatial and temporal variability of chl-a. Spatial variability probably arises from the mosaic of situations within the Curonian lagoon in terms of bottom sediment features, nutrient availability in the water column, water depth and hydrodynamics. Temporal variability is probably linked to complex and interplaying metereological and environmental constraints such as the length of the ice cover period, average water temperatures, wind-induced sediment re-suspension, the pattern of precipitations and river-associated nutrient transport to the lagoon. This study stresses the importance of remote sensing as a valid tool for long-term whole ecosystem studies. The preliminary results need more through analyses and intersection with other environmental data in order to better comprehend algal bloom determinants in complex and extremely dynamic systems such as coastal lagoons.     

Chlorophyll blooms and the spring/neap tidal cycle: observations at two stations on the coast of Connemara,Ireland

Water temperature, chlorophyll a and phaeophytin were recorded every 2 to 4 d, in order to describe short-term variability in phytoplankton blooms. Data were collected from May to September 1984 and March to September 1985 at shore stations on the coast of Connemara, western Ireland. Comparisons with offshore data suggest that the shore data is representative of coastal water. Chlorophyll a was highest at neap tides in spring, and at spring tides in early summer. In late summer, transient chlorophyll blooms occurred at neap tides, possibly due to a localized accumulation of flagellates in stable conditions.     

Study of the dynamics of estuarine and coastal waters using remote sensing: the Tinto-Odiel estuary, SW Spain

This paper deals with the application of satellite images to characterize some aspects of the circulation dynamics of the Tinto-Odiel estuary using turbidity patterns as ‘natural tracers’. 15 images (Landsat TM and Spot HRV) were processed to provide synoptic, instantaneous views of the circulation patterns under different environmental conditions. In addition, a comparison was made between results of oceanographic field work, using biplanes and fluorescent tracers, and satellite image turbidity patterns used as ‘ground truth’ data for specific hydroclimatic situations. This approach allowed (1) the identification and mapping of dynamic processes of interest during a theoretical tidal cycle, (2) the elaboration of additional information on the ‘flow schemes’ at the mouth of the estuary with improved spatial and temporal resolution, and (3) the supply of basic data to improve the knowledge of exchange processes between estuarine and coastal waters. The results of this study are considered to be useful for the management of the estuarine system.     

Uncertainty in establishing forest reference levels and predicting future forest-based carbon stocks for REDD+

Forest reference levels (FRLs) provide a benchmark for assessing reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+), and they are central to demonstrate additionality of REDD+. Attaining realistic FRLs, however, is challenging, especially in complex mosaic landscapes. We established FRLs in northern Laos for different reference periods and tested them against actual carbon stock changes. Annual time series of Landsat satellite images were used to capture the subtle changes in carbon stocks in complex landscapes characterized by shifting cultivation. We found that FRLs differ considerably depending on the reference period chosen. Abrupt land-use changes occurred when hybrid maize replaced traditional shifting cultivation and forests, and this invalidated carbon stock trends that would have been predicted had the FRL been projected into the future. We conclude that demonstrating additionality of REDD+ in fast developing areas is difficult and that payment systems rewarding potential emission reductions against hypothetical extrapolation of FRLs are unlikely to be a cost-effective strategy.     

Study of the dynamics of estuarine and coastal waters using remote sensing: the Tinto-Odiel estuary,SW Spain

This paper deals with the application of satellite images to characterize some aspects of the circulation dynamics of the Tinto-Odiel estuary using turbidity patterns as ‘natural tracers’. 15 images (Landsat TM and Spot HRV) were processed to provide synoptic, instantaneous views of the circulation patterns under different environmental conditions. In addition, a comparison was made between results of oceanographic field work, using biplanes and fluorescent tracers, and satellite image turbidity patterns used as ‘ground truth’ data for specific hydroclimatic situations. This approach allowed (1) the identification and mapping of dynamic processes of interest during a theoretical tidal cycle, (2) the elaboration of additional information on the ‘flow schemes’ at the mouth of the estuary with improved spatial and temporal resolution, and (3) the supply of basic data to improve the knowledge of exchange processes between estuarine and coastal waters. The results of this study are considered to be useful for the management of the estuarine system.     

Evaluation and application of a three-dimensional water quality model in a shallow lake with complex morphometry

Fundamental hydrodynamic and ecological processes of a lake or reservoir could be adequately depicted by one-dimensional (1D) numerical simulation models. Whereas, lakes with significant horizontal water quality and hydrodynamic gradients due to their complex morphometry, inflow or water level fluctuations require a three-dimensional (3D) hydrodynamics and ecological analyses to accurately simulate their temporal and spatial dynamics. In this study, we applied a 3D hydrodynamic model (ELCOM) coupled with an ecological model (CAEDYM) to simulate water quality parameters in three bays of the morphologically complex Lake Minnetonka. A considerable effort was made in setting up the model and a systematic parameterization approach was adopted to estimate the value of parameters based on their published values. Model calibration covered the entire length of the simulation periods from March 29 to October 20, 2000. Sensitivity analysis identified the top parameters with the largest contributions to the sensitivity of model results. The model was next verified with the same setup and parameter values for the period of April 25 to October 10, 2005 against field data. Spatial and temporal dynamics were well simulated and model output results of water temperature (T), dissolved oxygen (DO), total phosphorus (TP) and one group of algae (Cyanobacteria) represented as chlorophyll a (Chla) compared well with an extensive field data in the bays. The results show that the use of the model along with an accurate bathymetry, a systematic calibration and corroboration (verification) process will help to analyze the hydrodynamics and geochemical processes of the morphologically complex Lake Minnetonka. An example of an ecological application of the model for Lake Minnetonka is presented by examining the effect of spatial heterogeneity on coolwater fish habitat analysis in 3D and under a scenario where horizontal spatial heterogeneity was eliminated (1D). Both analyses captured seasonal fish habitat changes and the total seasonal averages differed moderately. However, the 1D analysis did not capture local and short duration variabilities and missed suitable fish habitat variations of as much as 20%. The experiment highlighted the need for a 3D analysis in depicting ecological hot spots such as unsuitable fish habitats in Lake Minnetonka.     

Using Remote Sensing to Reassess the Mass Mortality of Diadema antillarum 1983–1984

Abstract: The 1983–1984 mass mortality of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum remains one of the most severe die-offs ever recorded in the Caribbean. Before 1983, the herbivore D. antillarum was pervasive on coral reefs in the region. Nine months after first detection of the mass mortality, 95% of the urchins had perished, and algal cover of coral increased between 100% and 250%. A water-borne pathogen was hypothesized as the causative agent, but it was never isolated. To date, surface current patterns have been used exclusively to explain both the cause and the distribution patterns of the mortality event. Using archived satellite images, we re-examined the water-borne pathogen hypothesis and investigated whether other mechanisms could also account for the dissemination pattern in some areas. In addition, archived satellite images were utilized to detect changes in coral reef reflectance. For infections in the Gulf of Mexico and Bermuda, satellite images confirm that surface currents are likely responsible for the distribution of the pathogen. For infections in the eastern Caribbean (Curacao, U.S. Virgin Islands, Barbados), however, another mechanism, possibly ballast water exchange, must be considered because the surface current and infection patterns do not coincide. Changes in coral reflectance were detectable from Landsat thermatic mapping data before and after the mass mortality and correspond to the change in algal cover. Results from our study demonstrate the potential of satellite images for use in determining connectivity between regions of the Caribbean and in detecting changes in coral reef cover.     

Using virtual environments to improve the realism of choice experiments: A case study about coastal erosion management

Choice experiment surveys are commonly used to assess the general public׳s willingness to pay for different levels of environmental quality. However, respondents need to understand what they are valuing or they will make potentially wrong assumptions based on different experiences and frames of reference. Three-dimensional computer generated models or Virtual Environments (VE) have so far seen little use in economics research, probably due to the complexity and cost of developing and delivering them to study participants. The few studies that have used them find that VE are superior to static image presentations in helping people evaluate complex data. For this study we developed virtual environments for a choice experiment about coastal erosion management using free, easy-to-use software and Google Earth© satellite imagery and presented these to respondents as video tours. Our results indicate that the VE treatment reduced choice error, reduced left-right bias and improved respondent engagement and retention when compared with static images. There were also differences in WTP between the two groups.     

Seasonal variation in the properties of muscle mitochondria from the tropical scallop Euvola (Pecten) ziczac

In scallops, gametogenesis leads to considerable transfer of energetic reserves from the adductor muscle to the gonads. During an annual cycle, the scallops are exposed to changes in temperature and food availability. As these changes may affect muscle metabolic capacities, we examined whether the properties of the mitochondria in the phasic adductor muscle were modified during the annual cycle of the scallop Euvola (Pecten) ziczac (L. 1758). During our study, temperature and chlorophyll a levels generally showed an inverse relationship: high temperatures and low chlorophyll a levels occurred from mid-April to early June. Lower temperatures and higher chlorophyll a levels were found from January to late March and from mid-June to mid-September. Throughout the annual cycle, the substrate preferences and the pH sensitivity of the isolated muscle mitochondria changed little, whereas the maximal oxidative capacities and respiratory control ratios (RCR) varied considerably. Consistently, the maximal capacities for substrate oxidation were 30 to 80% lower in mitochondria isolated in May than at other times in the year. The RCR values of mitochondrial oxidation of glutamate, glutamine and succinate varied throughout the year with lower values characterizing the mitochondria from scallops harvested in May and in certain cases in August. In May, adductor muscles had lower protein levels than at other times. These data suggest that the requirements of gametogenesis, coupled with␣the high temperatures and low food availability occurring during April and May, led to a mobilization of muscle proteins which concomitantly decreased the oxidative capacity of isolated mitochondria. Received: 29 November 1996 / Accepted: 5 December 1996     

Seasonal variation of nitrogen and phosphorus in Xiaojiang River—A tributary of the Three Gorges Reservoir

A yearlong monitoring program in the backwater area of Xiaojiang River (XBA) was launched in order to investigate the eutrophication of backwater areas in tributaries of the Yangtze River in the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) in China, starting after the impoundment water level of the TGR reached 156 m. From March 2007 to March 2008, the average concentration of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) were (1553±484) μg·L^?1 and (62±31) μg·L^?1, respectively. The mean value of chlorophyll was (9.07±0.91) μg·L^?1. The trophic level of XBA was meso-eutrophic, while the general nutrient limitation was phosphorus. The results indicated that XBA has a strong ability to purify itself and has non-point source pollution from terrestrial runoff. The variation of TN/TP ratio was caused by a variation in TN rather than in TP when TN/TP < 22. N-fixation from cyanobacteria occurred and became an important process in overcoming the nitrogen deficit under a low TN/TP ratio. When TN/TP ? 22, the variation of TP affected the TN/TP ratio more significantly than TN. The increase of TP in XBA was caused mainly by particulate phosphorus, which could originate from a non-point source as adsorptive inorganic forms after heavy rainfall and surface runoff. An increase in the river’s flow could also contribute to an unstable environment for the growth of phytoplankton.     

A Bayesian approach for understanding the role of ship speed in whale-ship encounters

Mandatory or voluntary reductions in ship speed are a common management strategy for reducing deleterious encounters between large ships and large whales. This has produced strong resistance from shipping and marine transportation entities, in part because very few studies have empirically demonstrated whether or to what degree ship speed influences ship-whale encounters. Here we present the results of four years of humpback whale sightings made by observers aboard cruise ships in Alaska, representing 380 cruises and 891 ship-whale encounters. Encounters occurred at distances from 21 m to 1000 m (x = 567 m) with 61 encounters (7%) occurring between 200 m and 100 m, and 19 encounters (2%) within 100 m. Encounters were spatially aggregated and highly variable across all ship speeds. Nevertheless a Bayesian change-point model found that the relationship between whale distance and ship speed changed at 11.8 knots (6.1 m/s) with whales encountering ships, on average, 114 m closer when ship speeds were above 11.8 knots. Binning encounter distances by 1-knot speed increments revealed a clear decrease in encounter distance with increasing ship speed over the range of 7-17 knots (3.6-8.7 m/s). Our results are the first to demonstrate that speed influences the encounter distance between large ships and large whales. Assuming that the closer ships come to whales the more likely they are to be struck, our results suggest that reduced ship speed may be an effective management action in reducing the probability of a collision.     

基于MODIS模拟的辽东湾叶绿素a的遥感反演模型

叶绿素a浓度对于水质和富营养化评价、赤潮探测及海洋生产力研究有重要意义.利用卫星遥感反演获取叶绿素a浓度弥补了传统采样方法的数据离散化、耗时长且费用高的缺陷,可以实时和全面地观测大尺度海洋叶绿索a分布.通过实测光谱模拟卫星波段,可以在一定程度上削除大气干扰,有助于准确地确定特征波段和建立遥感反演模型.本文以辽东湾为研究区,利用现场实测光谱模拟了MODIS波段,并在光谱特征分析基础上进行叶绿素a的特征波段选择,通过比较单波段和波段比值法等算法,建立了2个具有区域特色的叶绿素a遥感反演模型,并进行了模型验证.结果表明:在辽东湾海域,运用红光附近特征波段667和678 nm来反映叶绿素特征比传统蓝绿光波段(440和550nm)似乎更能削弱其它水体组分的干扰,突出辽东湾水体的特点.利用667、678和551nm的三波段模型要比单纯考虑667和678nm波段比值的模型要好一些,该模型r为0.856,标准差为0.190.模型验证预测值和实测值的相关系数为0.93(p<0.01),表明了模型良好的预测能力.模型具有明显的区域特色,结果是否具有普适性,还需进一步验证.