The boll weevil in North America: Scientific conflicts over management of environmental resources

This paper is a historical and philosphical reconstruction of how U.S. entomologists attempted to mitigate the depradations of the boll weevil on cotton, the world's most important natural fiber. The boll weevil caused severe losses in the U.S. after 1892. Early control methods were based on altering the cultural practices of cotton growers. The discovery in 1917 that calcium arsenate was an effective insecticide for boll weevils eventually allowed some farmers to rely on chemical control. Development of synthetic, organic insecticides allowed many U.S. growers after 1945 to rely heavily on insecticides for boll weevils. By the 1960s, resistance of boll weevils to insecticides, induction of secondary pest outbreaks, and environmental health hazards threatened cotton production practices based on insecticides. U.S. entomologists devised two new strategies to rescue cotton production from its insecticide crisis: integrated pest management (IPM) and total population management (TPM). Eradication of key insect pests such as boll weevils was envisaged by TPM entomologists with adequate technology. E.F. Knipling, the USDA entomologist who designed TPM, gave 1968 as a target for possible boll weevil eradication. The pilot boll weevil eradication experiment (PBWEE) was conducted in 1971–1973. IPM entomologists argued the futility of attempting to eradicate the boll weevil from the U.S.A., but TPM adherents argued for a second test, which was held in Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina (1978–1980). A new controversy erupted over how to interpret the fact that a few boll weevils were found at the end of the second test. IPM and TPM entomologists were once again pitted against one another on three major issues: defining eradication; explaining secondary pest behavior; and drawing conclusions about the wisdom of a national boll weevil eradication program. Currently, entomologists have reached a stalemate over boll weevil eradication in the U.S. Some entomologists are attempting to synthesize opposing views in the hope of reaching a professional consensus on appropriate boll weevil suppression methods. Significant distinctions separate IPM and TPM and will make it difficult to achieve an agreement. Budgetary problems in the U.S.A. argue for a management rather than eradication stance against boll weevils. The split in the U.S. entomological profession could have adverse effects on efforts to develop insect-control science outside of the U.S.     

鲁西南粮棉产区生态控制农田害虫技术研究

根据生态类型区的农业生态现状，以种植结构调整为基础，发挥生态因素控制害虫作用为重点，充分利用害虫天敌，生物制剂的控害作用，必要时辅以化学防治调节，达到生态控制农作物害虫的目的。     

Inaction levels for the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta (hym.: formicidae): A predator of the boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis (col.: curculionidae)

The density of red imported fire ants, Solenopsis invicta Buren (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), necessary to limit boll weevil abundance, Anthonomus grandis Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), below the action level was determined. An inaction level of 0.4 fire ants per shake bucket sample (i.e., four ants per 10 plant terminals) will provide boll weevil control approximately 90% of the time. A dynamic inaction level is also provided. Total mortality of boll weevil developmental stages including eggs through teneral adults averaged 97.9%. Of 100 boll weevil eggs deposited in cotton squares (flower buds), an average of two adults survive of which about half are female. Thus, the net replacement rate per generation (R_o is 1.0 which, in this case, indicates a stable boll weevil population.     

Matching innovations with potential users, a case study of potato IPM practices

Through interviews and mail surveys, Ohio potato (Solanum tuberosum) growers were surveyed concerning their willingness to adopt three cultural controls being developed for management of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), which had become increasingly difficult to control. The principal objective of the research was to obtain a deeper understanding of how farmers make decisions to adopt or not adopt new techniques and how these decisions are related to farmers' educational backgrounds and the way they currently manage their farms. The three cultural management options emphasized ecological approaches to habitat management rather than ecologically disruptive chemical control: (1) using host plants in overwintering sites to slow the spring movement of the beetles to potato fields, (2) using larger potato plants at field borders than in the center of the field as a spring trap crop, and (3) concentrating beetles in relatively small undefoliated areas to be killed with heat in late summer. Most respondents would not adopt these alternative pest management strategies, mainly because they perceived an unsatisfactory trade-off between logistic difficulties and expenses and population suppression they would achieve compared with traditional chemical control measures. Education correlated positively and experience in farming negatively with the willingness to try new pest management techniques. Additionally, growers responding more negatively to questions regarding integrated pest management strategies were more willing to experiment with the alternative techniques, a result attributed to either the survey design or an indication of experience with the more intensive management effort required for integrated pest management. This profile of potential innovators should be used by researchers to establish partnerships with farmers that could assist with both the research and development of new farming techniques and the adoption of successful systems by other farmers.     

A survey of the use of IPM by New York apple producers

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was first introduced to New York apple growers in 1975 through an Extension pilot program. Since that time, growers have become aware of the methods, results and potential benefits of following an IPM approach in their orchards. Differences in pesticide use, demography and behavior between IPM users and non-users are presented in this study. Results showed that > 80% of the apple producers in New York State (NY) incorporate some aspect of IPM into their pest control strategies. IPM users were younger and better educated and had less farm experience than non-users. Cornell Cooperative Extension was considered a primary source of written pest management and pesticide information to NY growers. However, agricultural sales persons were also considered useful by the growers for making pest management decisions. Growers that employed comprehensive IPM practices used 30% less insecticides, 47% less miticides and 10% less fungicides than growers that did not use IPM practices. This resulted in 235 kg active ingredient ha⁻¹ not having to be absorbed by the environment and saved IPM apple growers an average of US$ 95.80 ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ over an 11-year period (1976–1986) without significantly affecting fruit quality.     

生态规划的回顾与展望

随着全球性生态环境问题的加剧，协调发展与自然环境的关系，寻求社会经济持续发展，已成为当今科学界所关注的一个重要课题。生态规划是实现持续发展的一个重要途径。通过生态规划来协调人与自然及资源利用的关系，可追溯到上世纪末的生态学思想家及区域规划的先驱者的著作及规划实践，并在二次世界大战前得到很大的发展。６０年代以来，随着环境问题的加剧，生态规划重新受到人们的重视，尤其ＭｃＨａｎｇ及其同事的杰出工作，使生态规划思想与方法得到广泛的应用。近年来，生态规划的发展在理论上更多地吸取现代生态学的新成果。在方法上广泛运用计算机技术与地理信息系统，从定性向定量分析与模拟方向发展。在实践上，生态规划从单一对象与目标的规划向城市、区域持续发展规划发展。可以预见，生态规划将成为持续发展研究与实践的重要工具和途径。     

我国城市森林文态保护和管理的探讨

森林具有经济、生态、社会和文化功能。森林文态与森林生态相对应,是指在森林的自然、生命系统的基础上形成的人文精神的综合。近年来,我国城市化率已由1993年的28%提高到2008年的45.68%,城市森林生态保护有了长足的发展,但也存在着对森林文态保护重视不够、相关管理滞后等问题。为了加强城市森林文态保护和管理,研究认为,我国社会经济发展已走向成熟推进和消费阶段,森林文态保护是未来城市森林发展的灵魂,尤其是随着我国城市化水平的提高,城市森林文态保护将越来越受到重视。研究最后建议,应把城市森林文态保护纳入森林立法和管理,加强城市森林发展规划,突出物质财富生产和精神财富生产的有机结合,促进城市森林文态保护和绿色文化的发展。     

日本污染控制概述

日本的环境污染控制大体上经历过工业化早期，二次大战后的恢复发展期和七十年代后的全面控制三个时期，并于七十代下半期后形成了以“注重人类居住环境和文化环境中的生活质量”为特征的环境政策和全面维系环境质量的概念，在水污染控制，固体废弃物管理和大气污染控制方面制订了一系列排放标准和管理标准。     

Rethinking the role of information in chemicals policy: implications for TSCA and REACH

This article analyses the role of different kinds of information for minimizing or eliminating the risks due to the production, use, and disposal of chemical substances and contrasts it with present and planned (informational) regulation in the United States and the European Union, respectively. Some commentators who are disillusioned with regulatory approaches have argued that informational tools should supplant mandatory regulatory measures unflatteringly described as “command and control.” Critics of this reformist view are concerned with the lack of technology-innovation forcing that results from informational policies alone. We argue that informational tools can be made more technology inducing – and thus more oriented towards environmental innovations – than they are under current practices, with or without complementary regulatory mechanisms, although a combination of approaches may yield the best results.The conventional approach to chemicals policy envisions a sequential process that includes three steps of (1) producing or collecting risk-relevant information, (2) performing a risk assessment or characterization, followed by (3) risk management practices, often driven by regulation. We argue that such a sequential process is too static, or linear, and spends too many resources on searching for, or generating information about present hazards, in comparison to searching for, and generating information related to safer alternatives which include input substitution, final product reformulation, and/or process changes. These pollution prevention or cleaner technology approaches are generally acknowledged to be superior to pollution control. We argue that the production of risk information necessary for risk assessment, on the one hand, and the search for safer alternatives on the other hand, should be approached simultaneously in two parallel quests. Overcoming deficits in hazard-related information and knowledge about risk reduction alternatives must take place in a more synchronized manner than is currently being practiced. This parallel approach blurs the alleged bright line between risk assessment and risk management, but reflects more closely how regulatory agencies actually approach the regulation of chemicals.These theoretical considerations are interpreted in the context of existing and planned informational tools in the United States and the European Union, respectively. The current political debate in the European Union concerned with reforming chemicals policy and implementing the REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals) system is focused on improving the production and assessment of risk information with regard to existing chemicals, although it also contains some interesting risk management elements. To some extent, REACH mirrors the approach taken in the United States under the Toxics Substances Control Act (TSCA) of 1976. TSCA turned out not to be effectively implemented and provides lessons that should be relevant to REACH. In this context, we discuss the opportunities and limits of existing and planned informational tools for achieving risk reduction.     

美国空间环境保障技术发展研究

在介绍世界空间环境研究的基础上,详细分析了美国/美军空间环境研究和应用服务保障建设。结果表明,美国/美军具有较强的空间环境探测能力、先进的空间环境预警预报技术和高效的空间环境效应评估分析能力,空间环境保障技术和保障服务能力实属世界一流。     

国外城市自然保护与生态重建及其对我国的启示

论文对当前国外的城市自然保护与生态重建活动作了介绍。城市自然保护包括野生生物生境保护、城市地区湿地及自然景观保护等内容。城市生态重建则主要有生态公园建设、废弃地生态重建、城市扩散廊道体系建设等方面。城市自然保护与生态重建具有以生态学为基础,多学科交叉;注重生态过程的恢复;多目标、多层次规划设计的特点。在此基础上,论文给出了4点对于我国城市生态建设的启示。     

澳大利亚和新西兰自然生态和城市环境保护研究与借鉴

为学习和借鉴国外发达国家先进的生态和环境保护经验,研究了澳大利亚和新西兰自然生态和城市环境保护工作,分析了两国在自然生态保护、农业可持续发展、城市基础设施建设方面的特点,总结了两国在城市内河治理、挥发性气体回收、公众环保参与形式及固体废物回收利用等方面的经验,提出了中国生态与环境保护工作的建议。     

看美国环境管理架构运行机制的启示

自上世纪70年代开始,美国相继出台了一系列环境法律法规,建立了完善的环境执法机构和有效的环境法执行机制,取得了很好效果。本文从立法、机构设置、职能分配和运行机制等方面对中美环境管理体制进行了研究,旨在借鉴美国先进经验和有益做法,提出完善中国环境管理体制的对策。     

最佳管理措施在非点源污染防治中的应用

综述了最佳管理措施（ＢＭＰｓ）在非点源污染控制中的应用现状，工程性措施有人工湿地、植被过滤带与缓冲带、蓄水池与沉淀塘等，非工程性措施有免耕－少耕法、化肥农药合理使用、生物废弃物再利用、地下水位控制、灌溉水生态化等，以及它们所取得的成果，并展望其发展趋势及前景。     

北方城市干涸河流区域资源管理与环境整治模式——以滹沱河石家庄市区段生态恢复与重建模式为例

针对城市化进程中所导致的河流干涸、景观与生物多样性丧失、生态环境恶化等问题,研究了我国北方典型城干涸河流生态恢复与环境整治模式。借助遥感、GIS技术、环境监测等手段,对研究区域--滹沱河石家庄市区段的生态环境现状进行了调查与分析,提出了“以绿代水”的生态-恢复与重建模式。在对河流进行生态输水、水资源合理管理与调度的同时,选择适宜的研究尺度,提出了恢复流域内自然植被的“绿色滹沱”模式,即:河道中心区--乡土草本滞洪补潜;缓冲区----灌木束水导流、杨柳护堤造岸;过渡区-林果防风固沙。最后,还提出了滹沱河区域环境与资源管--理的建议。论文为城市干涸河流的生态环境整治与区域资源管理提出了新的理念和途径。     

国外生态阈值研究进展及启示

生态阈值是促使生态系统属性发生突变的环境变量的值,20世纪70年代以来在国外生态学界掀起研究热潮.通过详细总结国外生态阈值研究内容、研究方法与成果实践应用状况,反映出生态阈值研究对于理解生态系统转变过程、制定生态标准以及实施环境管理决策具有重要支撑意义;强调生态阈值研究应以正确把握时间和空间尺度、理解系统要素相互作用机制及阈值检测数学模型的生态学意义为前提;由于背景干扰和人为压力增加了物种及其生态系统的敏感性,迄今只有少量的带有阈值的标准和制度尝试性应用于国外资源环境管理实践领域.结合当前国内生态环境管理标准制定的科技支撑需求,建议谨慎将国内外阈值研究成果应用于国内管理实践,同时针对国内重点地区突出的生态环境问题开展生态阈值研究,以夯实"三线一单"资源环境管理制度科学基石,提升生态学研究实践应用价值.      

Core concepts of landscape ecology

１ＩｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎＬａｎｄｓｃａｐｅｅｃｏｌｏｇｙｉｓａｎｅｗｌｙｅｍｅｒｇｅｄｔｒａｎｓｄｉｓｉｐｌｉｎａｒｙｓｕｂｊｅｃｔ．Ｔｈｉｓｍｕｌｔｉｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｂｒｉｎｇｓｂｅｎｅｆｉｔｓｔｏｉｔｓｄｅｖｅ...     

Potential for biological control of field bindweed in California's coastal vineyards

The possibility of using biological control against field bindweed, Convolvulus arvensis L., was studied in four vineyards along the California coast. Field bindweed is a dominant member of the weed community and the principal plant pest in these vineyards. There is considerable insect and mite damage to its foliage during late summer and autumn, but the stress this places on the weed is unknown. The most significant natural enemies of field bindweed are defoliating caterpillars, Bedellia somnulentella Zeller, Chaetocnema confinis Crotch, and spider mites. Non of the natural enemies present appeared to be suitable as biological control agents. However, some arthropods, such as Noctuelia floralis (Huebner), associated with field bindweed in Mediterranean Europe and Pakistan, could be useful in the California grape agroecosystem, once cleared for importation and release in North America. Others, unsuitable to release in California because of feeding on closely related native plants, may be of value in other parts of the world where no such conflicts of interest exist. It would be feasible to use biological control against field bindweed in California's coastal vineyards and, perhaps, also in orchards under present systems of cultivation. Its effectiveness could be enhanced by certain changes in growing practices, particularly the acceptance of some weed growth, and by changes in existing pest controls. Biological control of field bindweed should be considered in the development of pest management programs for such crops in California and wherever this plant is a serious pest.     

人类可持续发展指数的改进及国际比较

对人类发展指数进行绿色及公平修正是可持续发展的必然要求。基于28个国家1990-2014年的面板数据,采用生态足迹改进人类可持续发展指数,并对其分解探讨变迁原因,在此基础上进行公平校正构建综合可持续发展指数。结果表明：生物质盈余发达国家排名靠前,影响其可持续发展的主要因素是高碳排放,生物质赤字国家通过转移别国资产维持发展,不平衡导致美国的综合可持续性下降;发展中国家的收入与教育快速提升,但生态消耗及不公平度持续上升,抑制作用逐渐扩大,阿联酋排名末位,发展方式最不可持续;最不发达国家的发展主要来自健康、教育及低生态消耗的贡献。分项维度间高度相关,可持续发展需在社会、经济、生态、公平间进行更好的权衡。     

Management objectives for ecological risk assessment-developments at US EPA

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is preparing supplemental guidance for its 1998 Guidelines for Ecological Risk Assessment (U.S. EPA, 1998) to address planning for ecological risk assessment. To date, a work group has held three colloquia to identify what potential government and private-sector users want the guidance to address, commissioned six issue papers to explore various topics, and developed one paper internally. The papers, respectively, address examples of decision analysis, interested-party involvement, a comparison of several countries’ approaches to ecological risk management, high-risk ecosystems, ecosystem services, a private-sector approach to prioritization, and an EPA collaboration. All seven are presented here, along with an invitation for discussion and input.