Air pollution exposure monitoring and estimating. Part I. Integrated air quality monitoring system

This paper presents an integrated exposure monitoring system, based on an expansion of existing air quality monitoring systems using dispersion modelling. The system allows: (1) identifying geographical areas whose inhabitants are most exposed to ambient pollution; (2) identifying how many people in an area are exposed to concentrations of pollution exceeding air quality guidelines; (3) describing the exposure of population subgroups (e.g. children); (4) planning pollution abatement measures and quantifying their effects; (5) establishing risk assessment and management programs, and (6) investigating the short- and long-term effects of both pollutants and pollution sources on public health. The effect of pollution is rarely very large and in order to discover it, exposure estimation must provide data that reflects both spatial and temporal variations. Estimates of pollution exposure are obtained using an integrated approach that combines results of measurements from monitoring programs with dispersion calculations. These values can serve as estimates for individual short-term or long-term exposure. The grouped data allows the expression of ambient pollution concentrations as the spatial distribution of estimates such as the mean or 98th percentile of such compounds as SO2, O3, NO2, PM10 and PM2.5. This integrated approach has been combined into a single software package, AirQUIS.     

Biological monitoring of wood dust exposure in nasal lavage by high-performance liquid chromatography

A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for biomonitoring of occupational wood dust exposure based on nasal lavage as a biomonitoring matrix was developed. Gallic acid (GA) was chosen as the indicator compound for oak dust exposure. From the chromatographic profile of ash dust, four peaks were chosen as indicator compounds. Phenolic indicator compounds were analysed by HPLC. Personal dust samples and corresponding nasal lavage samples were collected from 16 workers exposed to oak dust and six to ash dust. The dust concentrations in the workers' breathing zone varied between 0.7 and 13.8 mg m(-3). The indicators revealed the nature of the wood dust inhaled. For the workers who did not use respirators, the correlation between the dust and corresponding indicator compound in their nasal lavage was significant; r2 = 0.59 (n = 12) for oak dust and r2 = 0.58 (n = 6) for ash dust, respectively. Further, the correlation for oak dust workers who used respirators was r = 0.67 (n = 4). Nasal lavage sampling and HPLC analysis of polyphenol indicator compounds are promising tools for measuring wood dust exposure. Although further validation is necessary, determination of the individual dose may prove invaluable in prospective epidemiological studies.     

Manganese air exposure assessment and biological monitoring in the manganese alloy production industry

One hundred workers carried personal air sampling equipment during three days to assess exposure to inhalable and respirable Mn. A novel four-step chemical fractionation procedure developed for the speciation of Mn in workroom aerosols was applied for selected aerosol filters. Blood and urine samples were analysed for Mn. The geometric mean (GM) concentrations of inhalable (n = 265) and respirable (n = 167) Mn determined in all filters were 254 microg m(-3) and 28 microg m(-3) respectively. Only 10.6% (95% CI 8.9-12.5) respirable Mn was found in the inhalable fraction when inhalable and respirable samples collected in parallel were considered (n = 153 pairs). There was a high correlation (Pearson's r = 0.70; p < 0.001) between respirable and inhalable Mn. The largest amounts of Mn in the inhalable aerosol fraction were found as Mn0 and Mn2+ (47.4%), whereas 28% was practically "insoluble". The associations between B-Mn and aerosol concentrations of Mn were weak, but an association was found between U-Mn and respirable Mn; Pearson's r being 0.38 between "soluble" respirable Mn and U-Mn. No significant association was found between the "insoluble" components (probably SiMn) and Mn in biological samples.     

Multi-objective optimization of air quality monitoring

A new method for multi-objective optimization of air quality monitoring systems based on satellite remote sensing of the troposphere is described in this work. The technique uses atmospheric turbidity as surrogate for air pollution loading. Through inverse chemical modeling and ancillary information the respective patterns of primary gaseous and particle pollutants are inferred. The optimization algorithm uses the resulting maps of ambient air pollution as input. It focuses on the gain of information with regard to human exposure to high pollution, potential impact on cultural heritage, compliance to ambient air quality standards, monitoring key point and area source emissions, as well as on the associated cost. Application of the method in Brescia, Italy showed its significant potential for improving the cost-effectiveness of air quality monitoring networks at the urban and regional scales.     

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Air pollution exposure monitoring and estimation. Part III. Development of new types of air quality indicators

The temporal pattern of exposure to a specific compound may affect health in several ways. Exposure to pollution can have short-term effects or long-term effects. For some compounds there is a threshold under which there is no presumed measurable effect, whereas for other compounds, there is no presumed threshold. For short-term effects, the exposure to a high concentration of a compound one day may either increase or decrease the response if values of the same compound become high again the next day. Adaptation to effects of short-term exposure to ozone, for example, is reported. Similarly, health response to sudden high peaks of concentration may also possibly differ in effect from those to peaks attained more gradually. For long-term effects of some compounds, the cumulative exposure may be more decisive in influencing health. This paper proposes and describes in detail several air quality indicators that reflect the time variability and the episodic nature of air pollution exposure, as an attempt to represent the temporal aspects of pollution exposure that may have important effects on health. Mean concentrations, 98th percentile and maximum values are the traditional indicators for estimating exposure. The temporal variability of particulate matter (PM10) and NO2, however, is here described by means of: (1) the rate of change of pollution as the difference between two consecutive hourly or daily values, and of (2) episodes, described in terms of number, duration and inter-episode period, maximum concentration in the episode, and integrated episode exposure.     

Effect of dibenzopyrene measurement on assessing air quality in Beijing air and possible implications for human health

Size fractionated particulate matter (PM) was collected in summer and winter from Beijing, China for the characterization of an expanded list of PAHs and evaluation of air pollution metrics. Summertime ΣPAHs on PM was 14.6 ± 29(PM 1.5), 0.88 ± 0.49(PM 1.5-7.2) and 0.29 ± 0.076(PM 7.2) ng m(-3) air while wintertime concentrations were 493 ± 206(PM 1.5), 26.7 ± 14(PM 1.5-7.2) and 5.3 ± 2.5(PM 7.2) ng m(-3) air. Greater than 90% of the carcinogenic PAHs were concentrated on PM(1.5). Dibenzopyrene isomers made up a significant portion (～30%) of the total carcinogenic PAH load during the winter. To our knowledge, this is the first report of dibenzopyrenes in the Beijing atmosphere and among the few studies that report these highly potent PAHs in ambient particulate matter. Lifetime risk calculations indicated that 1 out of 10,000 to over 6 out of 100 Beijing residents may have an increased risk of lung cancer due to PAH concentration. Over half of the lifetime risk was attributed to Σdibenzopyrenes. The World Health Organization and Chinese daily PM(10) standard was exceeded on each day of the study, however, PAH limits were only exceeded during the winter. The outcomes of the air pollution metrics were highly dependent on the individual PAHs measured and seasonal variation.     

Harmonized Nordic strategies for isocyanate monitoring in workroom atmospheres

The Nordic Network on Isocyanates (NORDNI) is financed by the Nordic Council of Ministers and is under the administration of Prof. Yngvar Thomassen and co-workers. National Institute of Occupational Health, Norway. The aim of NORDNI is to establish a broad network between the Nordic National Institutes of Occupational Health working within the field of isocyanate exposure and strategies for sampling and determination of isocyanates in workroom atmospheres. This viewpoint article summarizes the resolutions that were established at the 1st NORDNI consensus meeting arranged in Fr?ya, Norway, 31st August-2nd September, 2001. The consensus platform from the 1st NORDNI meeting was presented at the 4th International Symposium on Modern Principles of Air Monitoring, Lillehammer, Norway, 3-7 February, 2002.     

Review of monitoring and assessing ground vegetation biodiversity in national forest inventories

Ground vegetation (GV) is an important component from which many forest biodiversity indicators can be estimated. To formulate policies at European level, taking into account biodiversity, European National Forest Inventories (NFIs) are one of the most important sources of forest information. However, for monitoring GV, there are several definitions, data collection methods, and different possible indicators. Even though it must be considered that natural conditions in different countries form very different understory types, each one has its own cost-efficient monitoring design, and they can hardly be compared. Therefore, the development of general guidelines is a particularly complex issue. This paper is a review of data collection methods and consequently a selection of the best available methods for the set of indicators with an emphasis on GV sampling methodologies in NFIs. As a final result, recommendations on GV definitions and classifications, sampling methodologies, and indicators are formulated for NFIs. Different sampling areas are recommended for each life form (shrubs, herbs, etc.). Inventory cycles and sampling seasons (depending on the phonological stages) should be specially considered and evaluated in the results. The proposed indicators are based on composition at different levels of sampling intensity for each life form and on coverage measurements.     

Air pollution exposure monitoring and estimation. Part V. Traffic exposure in adults

In Oslo, traffic has been one of the dominating sources of air pollution in the last decade. In one part of the city where most traffic collects, two tunnels were built. A series of before and after studies was carried out in connection with the tunnels in use. Dispersion models were used as a basis for estimating exposure to nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter in two fractions. Exposure estimates were based on the results of the dispersion model providing estimates of outdoor pollutant concentrations on an hourly basis. The estimates represent concentrations in receptor points and in a square kilometre grid. The estimates were used to assess development of air pollution load in the area, compliance with air quality guidelines, and to provide a basis for quantifying exposure-effect relationships in epidemiological studies. After both tunnels were taken in use, the pollution levels in the study area were lower than when the traffic was on the surface (a drop from 50 to 40 micrograms m-3). Compliance with air quality guidelines and other prescribed values has improved, even if high exposures still exist. The most important residential areas are now much less exposed, while areas around tunnel openings can be in periods exposed to high pollutant concentrations. The daily pattern of exposure shows smaller differences between peak and minimum concentrations than prior to the traffic changes. Exposures at home (in the investigation area) were reduced most, while exposures in other locations than at home showed only a small decrease. Highest hourly exposures are encountered in traffic.     

Air pollution exposure monitoring and estimation. Part IV. Urban exposure in children

In the winter of 1994, 2300 school-age children in Oslo participated in a panel study of the role of traffic pollution on the exacerbation of diseases of the respiratory system and other symptoms of reduced health and well being in children. The children filled out a diary daily with information for five time points over six weeks. In order to quantify exposure-effect relationships for the symptoms, individual exposure to NO2 and particulate matter (PM2.5) was estimated, using the DINEX method a combination of information from the diary as to the children's whereabouts during the five time points each day, coupled with continuous dispersion modelling. An individual exposure estimate for each time point for each child was defined. Individual exposure estimated using dispersion modelling can be used to examine patterns of exposure such as isolating geographic areas with higher concentrations or describing concentrations of pollution by time of day. The diary allowed the time-use of the children to be described.     

Application of remote sensing to exposure monitoring

Although exposure assessments cannot be completed remotely, remote sensing techniques provide an invaluable adjunct in exposure monitoring programs. Exposure can be defined as the summation over time, in all media, of the amount of a pollutant available at the exchange boundaries of the receptor during a specified period. This paper describes a few remote monitoring techniques that provide direct measurement input into an exposure assessment and several that furnish quantitative or qualitative information leading to decisions regarding how to monitor, such that the source-exposure-dose relationships can be fully defined. Two general classes of remote sensing systems are included in this discussion-passive and active. Passive systems depend on a measurement of the energy reflected or emitted by a target and active systems use an energy source, e.g., a laser to perform the environmental interrogation. Airborne as well as ground-based remote monitoring measurements or systems are also considered in this paper.     

Integrated exposure monitoring for health risk assessment

Risk estimation and risk evaluation in society are often done separately for pollutants in ambient air, water, food and industrial air. The need for evaluating total exposure is pointed out. Ongoing international programs are referred to. Biological monitoring in combination with environmental monitoring constitutes a promising step towards an integrated exposure monitoring for health risk assessment. The rationale for such an approach is discussed. The need of monitoring not only single substances but a combination of substances is exemplified. A strengthening of the basic research in related fields will widely increase future possibilities for health-related surveillance.     

Calibration of two passive air sampler configurations for monitoring concentrations of hexabromocyclododecanes in indoor air

While polyurethane foam (PUF) disk passive air samplers are employed increasingly to monitor persistent organic pollutants in indoor air, they essentially sample only the vapour phase. As a previous investigation of the vapour : particle phase partitioning of hexabromocyclododecanes HBCDs in (outdoor) air reported them to be present largely in the particulate phase, we monitored three offices using active air samplers. In each, approximately 65% of HBCDs were present in the vapour phase, suggesting PUF disk passive samplers are suitable for monitoring HBCDs in indoor air. Concentrations in the three offices (239-359 pg Sigma HBCD m(-3)) exceed substantially those reported in outdoor air from the United States (2.1-11 pg Sigma HBCD m(-3)), but are in line with outdoor air from Stockholm. The relative abundance of the three principal diastereomers in office air was closer to that found in technical HBCD formulations (i.e. predominantly gamma-HBCD) than in most US outdoor air samples. Time integrated air concentrations of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-HBCD were obtained for an office using a low volume sampler operated over a 50 d period alongside PUF disk samplers. This calibration exercise yielded the following passive air sampling rates for both a fully- and part-sheltered PUF disk sampler design: for alpha-, beta-, and gamma-HBCD, 0.87, 0.89, and 0.91 m3 d(-1) respectively (fully-sheltered) and 1.38, 1.54, and 1.55 m3 d(-1) respectively (part-sheltered). Deployment of the part-sheltered configuration yielded concentrations approximately 35% lower than those obtained using a high volume sampler, consistent with PUF disk samplers measuring primarily the vapour phase.     

Measuring strategies and monitoring of the indoor environment

This paper presents key elements on which to base the design of a strategy for a particular indoor environment measurement task. Starting from a general strategy for responding to occupant complaints and conducting epidemiological and intervention studies the paper concentrates on selected key elements, with focus on air contaminants. Strategies for grouping of occupants with the purpose of exposure assessment should aim at optimising exposure contrast between groups, and grouping according to buildings may not be the proper choice. Occupant exposure can be measured by personal sampling or constructed from measured concentrations in microenvironments and activity patterns. The cause of temporal and spatial variability is discussed and guidance is given on the number of samples needed to detect a given change in true concentration level. The sick building syndrome (SBS) is defined as those situations where a high proportion of building occupants are complaining about mucous membrane or skin irritation, general symptoms. When investigating SBS, questionnaires should be used to collect structured information from occupants on perception of environmental conditions, psychosocial factors and symptoms. There is as yet no consensus on choice of length of reference period for reporting symptoms and for estimating exposure. Finally, methods for identifying and quantification of sources of air contaminants are discussed, including lab-scale or full-scale simulation, on-site measurement of source emission, air monitoring, surface sampling, and modelling.     

Biological monitoring of atmospheric trace metal deposition in North-Eastern Nigeria

The epiphytic moss Polytrichum juniperinum and the tree bark of Azardirachta indica were used to determine the atmospheric Cd, Cu, Pb, Mn, Fe, Ni and Zn levels in the North-East region of Nigeria. A good correlation exists between levels in the moss and the tree barks. The Pb, Zn and Fe levels in both sample types were higher than other metals in most sites. There was no significant difference in the levels of Cd, Cu, Ni and Mn recorded for inhabited and forest sites. The area derives its atmospheric metal contamination from vehicular, urban, industrial and agricultural sources.     

Solvent-free sampling with di-n-butylamine for monitoring of isocyanates in air

The solvent-free sampler for airborne isocyanates consisted of a polypropylene tube with an inner wall coated with a glass fibre filter, coupled in series with a 13 mm glass fibre filter. The filters were impregnated with reagent solution containing equimolar amounts of di-n-butylamine (DBA) and acetic acid. Air sampling was performed with an air flow of 0.2 l min(-1). The formed isocyanate-DBA derivatives were determined using liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. The sampler was investigated in regard to collection principle and extraction of the formed derivatives with good results. The possibility to store the sampler before sampling and to perform long-term sampling was demonstrated. Field extraction of the sampler was not necessary, as there was no difference between immediately extracted samples and stored ones (2 days). In comparative studies, the sampler was evaluated against a reference method, impinger-filter sampling with DBA as reagent. The ratios between the results obtained with the sampler and the reference in a test chamber at a relative humidity (RH) of 45% was in the range of 83-109% for isocyanates formed during thermal decomposition of PUR. At RH 95%, the range was 72-101% with the exception of isocyanic acid. In two field evaluations, the ratios for fast curing 2,4'- and 4,4'-methylene bisphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) was in the range 81-113% and for the 3-ring MDI the range was 54-70%. For the slower curing 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) and HDI isocyanurate, the ratios were in the range 78-145%. In conclusion, the solvent-free sampler is a convenient alternative in most applications to the more cumbersome impinger-filter sampler.     

Biological monitoring of heavy metal contaminations using owls

Iron, manganese, copper, lead and cadmium were measured in the livers, muscles, kidneys and bones of Eurasian Eagle Owls (Bubo bubo), Brown Hawk Owls (Nixos scutulata) and Collared Scops Owls (Otus lempiji) from Korea. Iron concentrations by tissue within species did not differ, but there were significant differences among tissues across all species. Manganese and copper concentrations in muscles, kidneys and bones, but not livers, differed among species and also differed among tissues in the three owl species. We suggest that manganese and copper concentrations from this study were far below the level associated with their toxicity. Lead concentrations significantly differed among all species for livers and bones, and among tissues for each species. Cadmium concentrations were significantly different among species for all tissues and among tissues in Eurasian Eagle Owls and Collared Scops Owls. For most samples, lead concentrations in livers and bones, and cadmium in livers and kidneys, were within the background levels for wild birds. For some Eurasian Eagle Owls and Collared Scops Owls, lead concentrations were at an acute exposure level, whilst lead concentrations were at a chronic exposure level in Brown Hawk Owls. Cadmium concentrations were at a chronic exposure level in all three owl species. Acute and chronic poisoning was significantly correlated between indicator tissues. We suggest that lead and cadmium contamination in Eurasian Eagle Owls may reflect a Korean source, Brown Hawk Owls may reflect Korean and wintering sites, and Collared Scops Owls may reflect breeding and/or wintering sites.