Comprehensive Analysis of Radioactive and Chemical Contamination of Water Bodies in the Area of Radium-Industry Waste Storage

Genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of water samples from the creeks flowing through the area of radium mining waste storage into the Ukhta River and from this river were assessed using biological tests with Allium schoenoprasum L. Chemical analysis of the samples indicated that concentrations of parent heavy natural radionuclides, ²¹⁰Pb, and ²¹⁰Po do not exceed the allowable level. Of ten heavy metals, only Zn and Mn concentrations exceeded MACs. The results of biological tests provided evidence for the significantly increased genotoxicity of water samples. The mitotic index increased with an increase in the concentration of Zn ions and manifested an inverse dependence on the activity of ²³⁸U. The genotoxic effect linearly depended on Zn concentration. Possible mechanisms responsible for the induction of these biological effects are discussed.     

Equilibrium,kinetics and thermodynamics studies on adsorptive removal of cobalt ions from wastewater using MIL-100(Fe)

This study describes experiments in which MIL-100(Fe) was used to remove Co²⁺ ions from the waste water. The synthesised adsorbent was characterised by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) and scanning electron microscope. Statistical analysis was used to investigate the effects of different parameters. From the obtained results, the removal efficiency was enhanced with increasing contact time and pH but decreased with increasing cobalt initial concentration. The maximum removal efficiency of Co⁺² was 93.4% under optimum conditions. The equilibrium adsorption data were best fitted to linearly transformed Freundlich isotherm. Adsorption kinetic data followed the pseudo second-order kinetic model. The maximum adsorption capacity of Co⁺² on to the MIL-100(Fe) was found to be 119 mg g^?1. The results showed that ?G of adsorption was negative, while ?H was positive which showed that the adsorption process was spontaneous and endothermic. The positive value of ?S showed that disordering and randomness increased at the solid–solution interface of cobalt ions with MIL-100(Fe) particles.     

Competition between the Rotifers Brachionus patulusand Euchlanis dilatata:Effect of Algal Food Level and Relative Initial Densities of Competing Species

We tested the effect of different algal (Chlorella vulgaris) levels and inoculation densities on the outcome of competition between the rotifers Euchlanis dilatata and Brachionus patulus. The experiment was performed in 36 transparent jars, each with 20 ml of a test medium. We used three Chlorella levels: 0.75 × 10⁶, 1.5 × 10⁶, and 3.0 × 10⁶ cells/ml. For each algal level, we used five different ratios of initial inoculation density. The population growth experiments were terminated after 19 days. Regardless of inoculation densities, an increase in food level resulted in an increased population abundance of both rotifer species. Regardless of food concentration,E. dilatatawas able to outcompete B. patulus at all inoculation densities when grown together. However, when Chlorella was offered in low concentration and there was a higher ratio of Brachionus to Euchlanis at the onset of the experiment, both rotifer species coexisted in more or less equal densities until the end of the experiments. When the food level was enhanced, E. dilatata totally eliminated B. patulus. The rate of population growth ranged from 0.002 to 0.578 for B. patulus and from 0.006 to 0.447 for E. dilatata. The results are discussed with respect to the factors influencing the outcome of competition between species.     

Isotope tracing of submarine groundwater discharge offshore Ubatuba, Brazil: results of the IAEA–UNESCO SGD project

Results of groundwater and seawater analyses for radioactive (³H, ²²²Rn, ²²³Ra, ²²⁴Ra, ²²⁶Ra, and ²²⁸Ra) and stable (D and ¹⁸O) isotopes are presented together with in situ spatial mapping and time series ²²²Rn measurements in seawater, direct seepage measurements using manual and automated seepage meters, pore water investigations using different tracers and piezometric techniques, and geoelectric surveys probing the coast. This study represents first time that such a new complex arsenal of radioactive and non-radioactive tracer techniques and geophysical methods have been used for simultaneous submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) investigations. Large fluctuations of SGD fluxes were observed at sites situated only a few meters apart (from 0 cm d⁻¹ to 360 cm d⁻¹; the unit represents cm³/cm²/day), as well as during a few hours (from 0 cm d⁻¹ to 110 cm d⁻¹), strongly depending on the tidal fluctuations. The average SGD flux estimated from continuous ²²²Rn measurements is 17 ± 10 cm d⁻¹. Integrated coastal SGD flux estimated for the Ubatuba coast using radium isotopes is about 7 × 10³ m³ d⁻¹ per km of the coast. The isotopic composition (δD and δ¹⁸O) of submarine waters was characterised by significant variability and heavy isotope enrichment, indicating that the contribution of groundwater in submarine waters varied from a small percentage to 20%. However, this contribution with increasing offshore distance became negligible. Automated seepage meters and time series measurements of ²²²Rn activity concentration showed a negative correlation between the SGD rates and tidal stage. This is likely caused by sea level changes as tidal effects induce variations of hydraulic gradients. The geoelectric probing and piezometric measurements contributed to better understanding of the spatial distribution of different water masses present along the coast. The radium isotope data showed scattered distributions with offshore distance, which imply that seawater in a complex coast with many small bays and islands was influenced by local currents and groundwater/seawater mixing. This has also been confirmed by a relatively short residence time of 1–2 weeks for water within 25 km offshore, as obtained by short-lived radium isotopes. The irregular distribution of SGD seen at Ubatuba is a characteristic of fractured rock aquifers, fed by coastal groundwater and recirculated seawater with small admixtures of groundwater, which is of potential environmental concern and has implications on the management of freshwater resources in the region.     

Thermal neutron fluence from ultra low-level γ-ray spectrometry of spoons activated during the JCO criticality accident at Tokai-mura in 1999

During the JCO-accident in Tokai-mura in 1999, the surrounding village was irradiated by an uncontrolled neutron flux. At some locations in that village, the thermal neutron flux was determined retrospectively by measurement of the very low activity of ⁵¹Cr and ⁶⁰Co in stainless-steel spoons using γ-ray spectrometry in underground laboratories. Activities determined in the HADES underground facility are presented here, together with calibrations performed using a well-defined thermal neutron flux to directly estimate the fluence of thermal neutrons independent of most assumptions. The results show measurable ⁵¹Cr in three samples and ⁶⁰Co in four samples taken from locations at distances of up to 430 m from the accident location despite the elapse of 4 half-lives of ⁵¹Cr before measurement. Effects of air transport of the samples were considered and shown to be negligible.     

Changes in Vegetation Cover and Socio-Economic Transitions in a Coastal Lagoon (Kalametiya, Sri Lanka), As Observed by Teledetection and Ground Truthing, Can be Attributed to an Upstream Irrigation Scheme

According to some non-scholarly reports, Kalametiya lagoon (dry zone of southern Sri Lanka, formerly 8.9 km², now 7.5 km²) had been a moderately or high salinity water body and a very important centre of prawn fishery until the late 1960s. Most of the lagoon area had remained open water until then. An upstream irrigation project, the Udawalawa irrigation scheme, came into operation in 1967, increasing the freshwater inflow to the lagoon. The flora, fauna and water quality of the lagoon was reported to have changed since then.The lagoon now is a shallow coastal water body with low salinity water. More than 75% of the lagoon is covered by freshwater species or mangrove species characteristic for water with a low salinity: Eichhornia crassipes, Typha latifolia resp. Sonneratia caseolaris. There is actually no commercially important fishery in the lagoon.The present study was carried out to assess scientifically the said changes in the vegetation within a GIS, using aerial photographs taken in 1956 and 1994 and IRS IC, PAN+LISS III satellite images of 1997 in combination with ground surveys and information from a questionnaire-based survey.It appeared from this work that the aerial cover by Sonneratia caseolaris has increased by more than 30 times over the period from 1956 to the recent dates. Also, the lagoon area with open water has been drastically reduced during the same period as a result of spreading of freshwater and low salinity plant species. The results strongly suggest that the locally reported changes (fisheries decline, water salinity decrease) can be corroborated by the observed profound changes in plant cover and that upstream water works may have had strong impacts on this ecosystem, thus causing these changes.This study couples data obtained from retrospective aerial photograph series, from spaceborne imaging, from actual ground surveys and from questionnaires amongst elderly people to reconstruct decadal environmental change, thus attempting to fill the gap of lacking historical environmental data.     

Characteristics of PM10, PM2.5, CO2 and CO monitored in interiors and platforms of subway train in Seoul, Korea

This study was performed to investigate the concentration of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 inside trains and platforms on subway lines 1, 2, 4 and 5 in Seoul, KOREA. PM₁₀, PM_2.5, carbon dioxide (CO₂) and carbon monoxide (CO) were monitored using real-time monitoring instruments in the afternoons (between 13:00 and 16:00). The concentrations of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 inside trains were significantly higher than those measured on platforms and in ambient air reported by the Korea Ministry of Environment (Korea MOE). This study found that PM₁₀ levels inside subway lines 1, 2 and 4 exceeded the Korea indoor air quality (Korea IAQ) standard of 150 μg/m³. The average percentage that exceeded the PM₁₀ standard was 83.3% on line 1, 37.9% on line 2 and 63.1% on line 4, respectively. PM_2.5 concentration ranged from 77.7 μg/m³ to 158.2 μg/m³, which were found to be much higher than the ambient air PM_2.5 standard promulgated by United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) (24 h arithmetic mean: 65 μg/m³). The reason for interior PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 being higher than those on platforms is due to subway trains in Korea not having mechanical ventilation systems to supply fresh air inside the train. This assumption was supported by the CO₂ concentration results monitored in tube of subway that ranged from 1153 ppm to 3377 ppm. The percentage of PM_2.5 in PM₁₀ was 86.2% on platforms, 81.7% inside trains, 80.2% underground and 90.2% at ground track. These results indicated that fine particles (PM_2.5) accounted for most of PM₁₀ and polluted subway air. GLM statistical analysis indicated that two factors related to monitoring locations (underground and ground or inside trains and on platforms) significantly influence PM₁₀ (p < 0.001, R² = 0.230) and PM_2.5 concentrations (p < 0.001, R² = 0.172). Correlation analysis indicated that PM₁₀, PM_2.5, CO₂ and CO were significantly correlated at p < 0.01 although correlation coefficients were different. The highest coefficient was 0.884 for the relationship between PM₁₀ and PM_2.5.     

The effect of air mass origin on the ambient concentrations of Be and Pb in Islamabad, Pakistan

Concentration of radionuclides ²¹⁰Pb and ⁷Be, having half lives of 22.3 years and 53.29 days, respectively, in the surface air samples of Islamabad (33.38° N, 73.10° E and Altitude ∼536 m asl.) are measured. The non-destructive technique of gamma-spectrometry, with a high purity germanium HPGe detector, was employed for the analysis of all samples. The annual average concentrations of ²¹⁰Pb and ⁷Be in the surface air samples were determined as 0.284 ± 0.15 and 3.171 ± 1.14 mBq m⁻³, respectively. Our results have shown a seasonal variation of the concentration of ⁷Be in air samples with high values for the spring season. High concentrations for ²¹⁰Pb are obtained when air masses originate from plain areas of Pothohar region, located in the South-West, West and North West of Islamabad. Our values of concentrations show a nice agreement with the relevant reported results.     

Reconstruction of 131I radioactive contamination in Ukraine caused by the Chernobyl accident using atmospheric transport modelling

The evaluation of ¹³¹I air and ground contamination field formation in the territory of Ukraine was made using the model of atmospheric transport LEDI (Lagrangian–Eulerian DIffusion model). The ¹³¹I atmospheric transport over the territory of Ukraine was simulated during the first 12 days after the accident (from 26 April to 7 May 1986) using real aerological information and rain measurement network data. The airborne ¹³¹I concentration and ground deposition fields were calculated as the database for subsequent thyroid dose reconstruction for inhabitants of radioactive contaminated regions. The small-scale deposition field variability is assessed using data of ¹³⁷Cs detailed measurements in the territory of Ukraine. The obtained results are compared with available data of radioiodine daily deposition measurements made at the network of meteorological stations in Ukraine and data of the assessments of ¹³¹I soil contamination obtained from the ¹²⁹I measurements.     

Adsorption models of Cs radionuclide and Sr (II) on some Egyptian soils

Distribution of cesium (¹³⁴Cs and ¹³⁷Cs) and strontium (Sr-II) between soil/water phases depends on many factors such as concentration of these ions between phases, the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil as well as its clay content, chemical composition (especially Na, K, Ca, and Mg ions), grain size distribution, calcite, iron oxide content, and organic coatings. Distribution coefficients (Kd) of cesium (labeled with ¹³⁷Cs) and strontium were measured on the grain size distributions ≥32 μm of four soil samples. These soils were obtained from four different locations within Inshas site in Egypt and three groundwater samples were obtained from the same site locations. X-ray diffraction showed that the soil samples consisted mainly of quartz mixed with the minor amounts of kaolonite and clay minerals. Sorption experiments were carried out at strontium aqueous concentrations range 10⁻⁷ to 10⁻⁴ mol l⁻¹. The CEC and Kds for cesium and strontium were measured at the same metal concentrations range. Distribution coefficients of cesium were found to be influenced by the composition of the soil, while the distribution coefficients of strontium were found to depend on calcium concentrations in the soil/groundwater system. The aim of this study was to determine the safety assessment of disposal ¹³⁷Cs radionuclide and Sr(II) in the aquifer regions inside the Inshas site. Sequential extraction tests showed that, strontium was associated with the carbonate fractions and majority of cesium was sorbed on the iron oxides and the residue.     

Evaluation of DNA damage in the root cells of Allium cepa seeds growing in soil of high background radiation areas of Ramsar – Iran

Plants are unique in their ability to serve as in situ monitors for environmental genotoxins. We have used the alkaline comet assay for detecting induced DNA damage in Allium cepa to estimate the impact of high levels of natural radiation in the soils of inhabited zones of Ramsar. The average specific activity of natural radionuclides measured in the soil samples for ²²⁶Ra was 12,766 Bq kg⁻¹ whereas in the control soils was in the range of 34–60 Bq kg⁻¹. A positive strong significant correlation of the DNA damage in nuclei of the root cells of A. cepa seeds germinated in the soil of high background radiation areas with ²²⁶Ra specific activity of the soil samples was observed. The results showed high genotoxicity of radioactively contaminated soils. Also the linear increase in the DNA damage indicates that activation of repair enzymes is not triggered by exposure to radiation in HBRA.     

On the Classification of Aquatic Communities: An Example of Zooplanktonic Cenoses of Karst Lakes in the North of European Russia

Nine lakes in the Arkhangelsk oblast were analyzed with respect to their morphometry, hydrology, and hydrochemistry, and their zooplankton was studied for three years. The data on zooplankton abundance, biomass, the ratio of filter-feeders and predators, the Shannon index of species diversity, and average individual weight of zooplankters were obtained. Differences in the structure of zooplanktonic cenoses were revealed in lakes differing in morphometric parameters, prevailing ions (HCO₃ ^–, SO₄ ^2–), and their concentration.     

Oxidative potential and chemical composition of PM2.5 in office buildings across Europe – The OFFICAIR study

In the frame of the OFFICAIR project, indoor and outdoor PM_2.5 samples were collected in office buildings across Europe in two sampling campaigns (summer and winter). The ability of the particles to deplete physiologically relevant antioxidants (ascorbic acid (AA), reduced glutathione (GSH)) in a synthetic respiratory tract lining fluid, i.e., oxidative potential (OP), was assessed. Furthermore, the link between particulate OP and the concentration of the PM constituents was investigated.The mean indoor PM_2.5 mass concentration values were substantially lower than the related outdoor values with a mean indoor/outdoor PM_2.5 mass concentration ratio of 0.62 and 0.61 for the summer and winter campaigns respectively. The OP of PM_2.5 varied markedly across Europe with the highest outdoor OP^AA m⁻³ and OP^GSH m⁻³ (% antioxidant depletion/m³ air) values obtained for Hungary, while PM_2.5 collected in Finland exhibited the lowest values. Seasonal variation could be observed for both indoor and outdoor OP^AA m⁻³ and OP^GSH m⁻³ with higher mean values during winter. The indoor/outdoor OP^AA m⁻³ and OP^GSH m⁻³ ratios were less than one with 4 and 17 exceptions out of the 40 cases respectively. These results indicate that indoor air is generally less oxidatively challenging than outdoors. Correlation analysis revealed that trace elements play an important role in determining OP, in particular, the Cu content. Indoor air chemistry might affect OP since weaker correlations were obtained for indoor PM_2.5. Our findings also suggest that office workers may be exposed to health relevant PM constituents to a different extent within the same building.     

Modelling bark beetle disturbances in a large scale forest scenario model to assess climate change impacts and evaluate adaptive management strategies

To study potential consequences of climate-induced changes in the biotic disturbance regime at regional to national scale we integrated a model of Ips typographus (L. Scol. Col.) damages into the large-scale forest scenario model EFISCEN. A two-stage multivariate statistical meta-model was used to upscale stand level damages by bark beetles as simulated in the hybrid forest patch model PICUS v1.41. Comparing EFISCEN simulations including the new bark beetle disturbance module against a 15-year damage time series for Austria showed good agreement at province level (R2 between 0.496 and 0.802). A scenario analysis of climate change impacts on bark beetle-induced damages in Austria’s Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] forests resulted in a strong increase in damages (from 1.33 Mm3 a⁻¹, period 1990–2004, to 4.46 Mm3 a⁻¹, period 2095–2099). Studying two adaptive management strategies (species change) revealed a considerable time-lag between the start of adaptation measures and a decrease in simulated damages by bark beetles.     

222Rn and 210Pb in the Arctic summer air

As part of an extensive air chemistry programme, during summer 1980, on board the Swedish ice-breaker ‘Ymer’, levels of ²²²Rn (radon) and its long-lived daughters ²¹⁰Pb and ²¹⁰Po were measured. The radon was trapped on charcoal and the long-lived daugther products sampled on filters on a daily basis. In addition, short-lived progenies were followed continuously on the filters in order to achieve a time resolution of about one hour. The concentrations of radon and ²¹⁰Pb in the Arctic summer air north of latitude 75° N averaged 75 ± 21 (1 sd) and 0·075 ± 0·028 mBqm⁻³, r respectively. During a two week period of persistent polar winds, the mean radon concentration was 19 ±5 mBq m⁻³. During such ‘Arctic background’ conditions, radon exhalation from the sea may contribute significantly to the measured radon-in-air concentration. It is shown that steady-state equilibrium models, applied to an air mass over the sea, overstimate the aerosol residence-time calculated from activity ratios. Time-dependent calculations indicate a mean aerosol residence time of 4 to 7 d in Arctic air. Good agreement is observed between radon levels and the time since the air mass left larger areas. Both the ²²²Rn and the long-lived daughter measurements are insensitive to contamination from ship and local settlement.     

Po-210 and Pb-210 as atmospheric tracers and global atmospheric Pb-210 fallout: a review

Over the past ∼5 decades, the distribution of ²²²Rn and its progenies (mainly ²¹⁰Pb, ²¹⁰Bi and ²¹⁰Po) have provided a wealth of information as tracers to quantify several atmospheric processes that include: i) source tracking and transport time scales of air masses; ii) the stability and vertical movement of air masses iii) removal rate constants and residence times of aerosols; iv) chemical behavior of analog species; and v) washout ratios and deposition velocities of aerosols. Most of these applications require that the sources and sink terms of these nuclides are well characterized.Utility of ²¹⁰Pb, ²¹⁰Bi and ²¹⁰Po as atmospheric tracers requires that data on the ²²²Rn emanation rates is well documented. Due to low concentrations of ²²⁶Ra in surface waters, the ²²²Rn emanation rates from the continent is about two orders of magnitude higher than that of the ocean. This has led to distinctly higher ²¹⁰Pb concentrations in continental air masses compared to oceanic air masses. The highly varying concentrations of ²¹⁰Pb in air as well the depositional fluxes have yielded insight on the sources and transit times of aerosols. In an ideal enclosed air mass (closed system with respect to these nuclides), the residence times of aerosols obtained from the activity ratios of ²¹⁰Pb/²²²Rn, ²¹⁰Bi/²¹⁰Pb, and ²¹⁰Po/²¹⁰Pb are expected to agree with each other, but a large number of studies have indicated discordance between the residence times obtained from these three pairs. Recent results from the distribution of these nuclides in size-fractionated aerosols appear to yield consistent residence time in smaller-size aerosols, possibly suggesting that larger size aerosols are derived from resuspended dust. The residence times calculated from the ²¹⁰Pb/²²²Rn, ²¹⁰Bi/²¹⁰Pb, and ²¹⁰Po/²¹⁰Pb activity ratios published from 1970’s are compared to those data obtained in size-fractionated aerosols in this decade and possible reasons for the discordance is discussed with some key recommendations for future studies.The existing global atmospheric inventory data of ²¹⁰Pb is re-evaluated and a ‘global curve’ for the depositional fluxes of ²¹⁰Pb is established. A current global budget for atmospheric ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb is also established. The relative importance of dry fallout of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb at different latitudes is evaluated. The global values for the deposition velocities of aerosols using ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb are synthesized.     

Introduction to and experimental conditions during the first year of the GMR chronic inhalation studies of diesel exhaust

A chronic exposure study was initiated to determine the effects of diesel exhaust on the health of experimental animals. For this purpose, test atmospheres of clean air (control) or freshly diluted diesel exhaust at concentrations of 250, 750, and 1500 μg/m³ were supplied to four 12.6 m³ inhalation chambers which housed rats and guinea pigs. Diesel aerosol size and concentration, as well as chamber temperature and relative humidity, were continually monitored and controlled to maintain the exposure dose levels and an environment of 22±2°C and 50%±20% relative humidity. The concentrations of CO and NO_x were found to be 5.8±1.0 mg/m³ and 7.9±1.0 mg/m³ above ambient in the chamber containing 1500 μg/m³ of particulate. Animals were supplied from the chambers, on a random basis, for both intramural and extramural studies throughout the exposure period. The experiment ran uninterrupted for over twelve months with mean diesel particle mass concentrations within 2% of the target values.     

Distribution Of Cadmium And Nickel Among Various Forms In Natural And Contaminated Soils Amended With Edta

Because of its strong chelating capacity, application of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to soils may change the amount and distribution of heavy metals among their various chemical forms. Therefore, a greenhouse experiment was conducted using two cultivars of Brassica species (Brassica juncea and Brassica carinata) as hyper accumulator test crops on natural and artificially Cd and Ni contaminated soils. Both natural and metal amended soils were treated with disodium salt of EDTA at 0 and 1 g kg^–1 soil. After harvest of crops, soil samples were fractionated into water soluble plus exchangeable (WE), carbonate (CARB), organic matter (OM), Mn oxide (MnOX), amorphous Fe oxide (AFeOX), crystalline Fe oxide (CFeOX) and residual (RES) fractions. In metal amended soils, Cd and Ni were found predominantly in the AFeOX fraction in the absence of EDTA application and in the WE fraction in EDTA treated soil. Application of EDTA resulted in the redistribution of Cd among different forms and increased significantly Cd in the WE fraction with a concomitant significant decrease in the OM fraction. In natural soils, more than 40% of the total Cd was present in the RES fraction while in contaminated soil it was only 5%. Nickel in the WE fraction increased significantly while it considerably decreased in the CARB, OM, MnOX, AFeOX and CFeOX fractions with EDTA addition. This indicated that applied EDTA is capable to move Cd and Ni from the less soluble or more stable forms (CARB, OM, MnOX, AFeOX and CFeOX) to the most soluble form (WE). N natural soils, Ni in the RES fraction was found upto 49%, whereas only 10% of the total Ni was observed in contaminated soil, irrespective of EDTA treatment. In general, the amount of Cd recovered after harvest of both the Brassica cultivars did not differ significantly in any fraction except the WE fraction. The amount of Ni recovered in the AFeOX fraction was significantly higher after harvest of B. juncea as compared to B. carinata.Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Towards green membranes: preparation of cellulose acetate ultrafiltration membranes using methyl lactate as a biosolvent

Ultrafiltration membranes were prepared using cellulose acetate (CA) as a polymer, LiCl and CaCl₂ as porogens and methyl-(S)-lactate as a solvent. CA, methyl lactate and the porogens used in this work are obtained from renewable resources; they are biodegradable, non-toxic and non-volatile organic compounds. Flat sheet ultrafiltration membranes were prepared by the phase inversion technique. A molecular weight cut-off between 15 and 35 kDa (polyethylene glycol) and pure water permeability between 13 and 177 litres h^? 1m^? 2 bar^? 1 were obtained. These parameters are in the ideal range for water treatment industry. Improvement of pollutant degree and ecotoxicity of the process was evaluated by ‘green’ metrics by the P (pollutants, persistent and bioaccumulative) and E (ecotoxicity) parameters. Both of these variables were recorded as zero using our method. This study represents a step ahead towards the production of ultrafiltration polymeric membranes by a ‘greener’ process than current methods.     

Plutonium isotopes in surface air of Prague in 1986–2006

Monitoring of ^239,240Pu in surface air of Prague started in 1986 in connection with the Chernobyl accident. Measurable activities of 10–28 μBq m⁻³ were found from 29 April 1986 to 5 May 1986. In the most of the monitoring periods of 1987–1996, activities of ^239,240Pu in air were not measurable. Positive values for ^239,240Pu and ²³⁸Pu in air could be obtained after installation of an aerosol sampler with higher flow-rate in 1997. Activity concentrations of ^239,240Pu and ²³⁸Pu in Prague air in the most of quarters of 1997–2006 were in the range 0.53–5.06 and <0.16–1.10 nBq m⁻³, respectively. Seasonal fluctuations can be found in content of ^239,240Pu in air. Activity ratios of ²³⁸Pu/^239,240Pu in air are higher than those in top soil, so it can be supposed that ²³⁸Pu is coming to air of Prague also from other sources than resuspension of fallout from atmospheric nuclear tests.