VOC concentrations measured in personal samples and residential indoor,outdoor and workplace microenvironments in EXPOLIS-Helsinki,Finland

Thirty target volatile organic compounds (VOC) were analyzed in personal 48-h exposure samples and residential indoor, residential outdoor and workplace indoor microenvironment samples as a component of EXPOLIS-Helsinki, Finland. Geometric mean residential indoor concentrations were higher than geometric mean residential outdoor concentrations for all target compounds except hexane, which was detected in 40% of residential outdoor samples and 11% of residential indoor samples, respectively. Geometric mean residential indoor concentrations were significantly higher than personal exposure concentrations, which in turn were significantly higher than workplace concentrations for compounds that had strong residential indoor sources (d-limonene, alpha pinene, 3-carene, hexanal, 2-methyl-1-propanol and 1-butanol). 40% of participants in EXPOLIS-Helsinki reported personal exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). Participants in Helsinki that were exposed to ETS at any time during the 48-h sampling period had significantly higher personal exposures to benzene, toluene, styrene, m,p-xylene, o-xylene, ethylbenzene and trimethylbenzene. Geometric mean ETS-free workplace concentrations were higher than ETS-free personal exposure concentrations for styrene, hexane and cyclohexane. Geometric mean personal exposures of participants not exposed to ETS were approximately equivalent to time weighted ETS-free indoor and workplace concentrations, except for octanal and compounds associated with traffic, which showed higher geometric mean personal exposure concentrations than any microenvironment (o-xylene, ethylbenzene,benzene, undecane, nonane, decane, m,p-xylene, and trimethylbenzene). Considerable differences in personal exposure concentrations and residential levels of compounds with mainly indoor sources suggested differences in product types or the frequency of product use between Helsinki, Germany and the United States.     

Personal exposure to fine particulate matter in elderly subjects: relation between personal, indoor, and outdoor concentrations

The time-series correlation between ambient levels, indoor levels, and personal exposure to PM2.5 was assessed in panels of elderly subjects with cardiovascular disease in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, and Helsinki, Finland. Subjects were followed for 6 months with biweekly clinical visits. Each subject's indoor and personal exposure to PM2.5 was measured biweekly, during the 24-hr period preceding the clinical visits. Outdoor PM2.5 concentrations were measured at fixed sites. The absorption coefficients of all PM2.5 filters were measured as a marker for elemental carbon (EC). Regression analyses were conducted for each subject separately, and the distribution of the individual regression and correlation coefficients was investigated. Personal, indoor, and ambient concentrations were highly correlated within subjects over time. Median Pearson's R between personal and outdoor PM2.5 was 0.79 in Amsterdam and 0.76 in Helsinki. For absorption, these values were 0.93 and 0.81 for Amsterdam and Helsinki, respectively. The findings of this study provide further support for using fixed-site measurements as a measure of exposure to PM2.5 in epidemiological time-series studies.     

Spatial and temporal variability in outdoor,indoor, and personal PM2.5 exposure

Outdoor, indoor and personal PM_2.5 measurements were made in a population of nonsmoking adults from three communities in the Minneapolis–St. Paul metropolitan area between April and November 1999. Thirty-two healthy adult subjects (23 females, 9 males; mean age 42±10, range: 24–64 yr) were monitored for 2–15 days during the spring, summer, and fall monitoring seasons. Twenty-four hour average gravimetric PM_2.5 samples were collected using a federal reference monitor (Anderson RAAS2.5-300) located at outdoor (O) central sites in the Battle Creek (BCK), East St. Paul (ESP) and Phillips (PHI) communities. Concurrent 24-h average indoor (I) and personal (P), and a limited number of outdoor-at-home (O@H) samples were collected using inertial impactors (PEM™ Model 200, MSP, Inc). The O (geometric mean {GM}=8.6; n=271; range: 1.0–41 μg/m³) were lower than I concentrations (GM=10.7; n=294; range 1.3–131 μg/m³), which were lower than P concentrations (GM=19.0; n=332; range 2.2–298 μg/m³). Correlation coefficients between O concentrations in the three communities were high and measured GM O levels in BCK were significantly lower than ESP, most likely because of local sources, but GM concentrations in PHI were not significantly different from BCK or ESP. On days with paired samples (n=29), O concentrations were significantly lower (mean difference 2.9 μg/m³; p=0.026) than O@H measurements (GM=11.3; range: 3.5–33.8 μg/m³), likely due to local sources in communities. Observed I and P concentrations were more variable, probably because of residential central air conditioning and hours of household ventilation for I and P, and occupational and environmental tobacco smoke exposures outside the residence for P. Across all individuals and days the median PM_2.5 “personal cloud” was 5.7 μg/m³, but the mean of the average for each participant was 15.7 μg/m³, with very low values in participants who did not work outside the home and much higher values in subjects with active lifestyles. Across all households and individuals the correlation between P and O concentrations was not significant, but the overall I–O correlation (0.27) and P–I correlation (0.51) were significant (p<0.05). Relatively little spatial variability was observed in O PM_2.5 concentrations across the three communities compared to the variability associated with I and P samples, and the measured O levels were relatively low compared to other large metropolitan areas in the United States.     

Pilot study of personal, indoor and outdoor exposure to benzene, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde

There is a lack of data for health risk assessment of long term personal exposure to certain ubiquitous air pollutants present particularly in urban atmospheres. The relationship between ambient background concentrations and personal exposure is often unknown. A pilot campaign to measure indoor concentrations, outdoor concentrations and personal exposure to benzene, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde was conducted in a medium sized French town. A strong contribution to total personal exposure was observed from indoor sources, especially for formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, suggesting that indoor sources are dominant for these compounds. For benzene, the average personal exposure exceeded a 10 μgm^?3 limit value, although this was not the case for the ambient background concentration. For formaldehyde, the limit level was also exceeded. Observations suggest that true personal exposure cannot be determined directly from measurements pertaining from fixed ambient background monitoring stations. It is hoped that this will be taken into consideration by the bodies responsible for monitoring air pollution and the future European Air Quality Directive.     

VOC source identification from personal and residential indoor,outdoor and workplace microenvironment samples in EXPOLIS-Helsinki,Finland

Principal component analyses (varimax rotation) were used to identify common sources of 30 target volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in residential outdoor, residential indoor and workplace microenvironment and personal 48-h exposure samples, as a component of the EXPOLIS-Helsinki study. Variability in VOC concentrations in residential outdoor microenvironments was dominated by compounds associated with long-range transport of pollutants, followed by traffic emissions, emissions from trees and product emissions. Variability in VOC concentrations in environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) free residential indoor environments was dominated by compounds associated with indoor cleaning products, followed by compounds associated with traffic emissions, long-range transport of pollutants and product emissions. Median indoor/outdoor ratios for compounds typically associated with traffic emissions and long-range transport of pollutants exceeded 1, in some cases quite considerably, indicating substantial indoor source contributions. Changes in the median indoor/outdoor ratios during different seasons reflected different seasonal ventilation patterns as increased ventilation led to dilution of those VOC compounds in the indoor environment that had indoor sources. Variability in workplace VOC concentrations was dominated by compounds associated with traffic emissions followed by product emissions, long-range transport and air fresheners. Variability in VOC concentrations in ETS free personal exposure samples was dominated by compounds associated with traffic emissions, followed by long-range transport, cleaning products and product emissions. VOC sources in personal exposure samples reflected the times spent in different microenvironments, and personal exposure samples were not adequately represented by any one microenvironment, demonstrating the need for personal exposure sampling.     

Determinants of indoor and personal exposure to PM2.5 of indoor and outdoor origin during the RIOPA study

Effects of physical/environmental factors on fine particle (PM_2.5) exposure, outdoor-to-indoor transport and air exchange rate (AER) were examined. The fraction of ambient PM_2.5 found indoors (F_INF) and the fraction to which people are exposed (α) modify personal exposure to ambient PM_2.5. Because F_INF, α, and AER are infrequently measured, some have used air conditioning (AC) as a modifier of ambient PM_2.5 exposure. We found no single variable that was a good predictor of AER. About 50% and 40% of the variation in F_INF and α, respectively, was explained by AER and other activity variables. AER alone explained 36% and 24% of the variations in F_INF and α, respectively. Each other predictor, including Central AC Operation, accounted for less than 4% of the variation. This highlights the importance of AER measurements to predict F_INF and α. Evidence presented suggests that outdoor temperature and home ventilation features affect particle losses as well as AER, and the effects differ.Total personal exposures to PM_2.5 mass/species were reconstructed using personal activity and microenvironmental methods, and compared to direct personal measurement. Outdoor concentration was the dominant predictor of (partial R² = 30–70%) and the largest contributor to (20–90%) indoor and personal exposures for PM_2.5 mass and most species. Several activities had a dramatic impact on personal PM_2.5 mass/species exposures for the few study participants exposed to or engaged in them, including smoking and woodworking. Incorporating personal activities (in addition to outdoor PM_2.5) improved the predictive power of the personal activity model for PM_2.5 mass/species; more detailed information about personal activities and indoor sources is needed for further improvement (especially for Ca, K, OC). Adequate accounting for particle penetration and persistence indoors and for exposure to non-ambient sources could potentially increase the power of epidemiological analyses linking health effects to particulate exposures.     

Characteristics of carbonyl compounds in public vehicles of Beijing city: Concentrations,sources, and personal exposures

The characteristics of carbonyl compounds (carbonyls) including concentrations, major sources, and personal exposure were investigated for 29 vehicles including taxi, bus and subway in Beijing. It was found that the taxis (Xiali, TA) and buses (Huanghe, BA) fueled by gasoline with longer service years had the higher indoor carbonyl levels (178±42.7 and 188±31.6 μg m⁻³) while subways energized by electricity without exhaust and the jingwa buses (BB) driven in the suburb had the lower levels with total concentrations of 98.5±26.3 and 92.1±20.3 μg m⁻³, respectively. Outdoor carbonyls of taxi cars and buses were nearly at the same level with their total concentrations varying from 80 to 110 μg m⁻³. The level of outdoor subways carbonyls was equal with the ambient air levels. Exhaust leakage, indoor material emissions, photochemical formation, and infiltration of outdoor air were considered to be the major sources to in-vehicle carbonyls. Personal exposures and cancer risk to formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were calculated for professional bus and taxi drivers, respectively. Taxi drivers had the highest cancer risk with personal exposure to formaldehyde and acetaldehyde of 212 and 243 μg day⁻¹, respectively. The public concern should pay considerable attention to professional drivers’ health.     

Windsor, Ontario exposure assessment study: design and methods validation of personal, indoor, and outdoor air pollution monitoring

The Windsor, Ontario Exposure Assessment Study evaluated the contribution of ambient air pollutants to personal and indoor exposures of adults and asthmatic children living in Windsor, Ontario, Canada. In addition, the role of personal, indoor, and outdoor air pollution exposures upon asthmatic children's respiratory health was assessed. Several active and passive sampling methods were applied, or adapted, for personal, indoor, and outdoor residential monitoring of nitrogen dioxide, volatile organic compounds, particulate matter (PM; PM-2.5 pm [PM2.5] and < or =10 microm [PM10] in aerodynamic diameter), elemental carbon, ultrafine particles, ozone, air exchange rates, allergens in settled dust, and particulate-associated metals. Participants completed five consecutive days of monitoring during the winter and summer of 2005 and 2006. During 2006, in addition to undertaking the air pollution measurements, asthmatic children completed respiratory health measurements (including peak flow meter tests and exhaled breath condensate) and tracked respiratory symptoms in a diary. Extensive quality assurance and quality control steps were implemented, including the collocation of instruments at the National Air Pollution Surveillance site operated by Environment Canada and at the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality site in Allen Park, Detroit, MI. During field sampling, duplicate and blank samples were also completed and these data are reported. In total, 50 adults and 51 asthmatic children were recruited to participate, resulting in 922 participant days of data. When comparing the methods used in the study with standard reference methods, field blanks were low and bias was acceptable, with most methods being within 20% of reference methods. Duplicates were typically within less than 10% of each other, indicating that study results can be used with confidence. This paper covers study design, recruitment, methodology, time activity diary, surveys, and quality assurance and control results for the different methods used.     

Windsor, Ontario exposure assessment study: design and methods validation of personal, indoor, and outdoor air pollution monitoring

The Windsor, Ontario Exposure Assessment Study evaluated the contribution of ambient air pollutants to personal and indoor exposures of adults and asthmatic children living in Windsor, Ontario, Canada. In addition, the role of personal, indoor, and outdoor air pollution exposures upon asthmatic children's respiratory health was assessed. Several active and passive sampling methods were applied, or adapted, for personal, indoor, and outdoor residential monitoring of nitrogen dioxide, volatile organic compounds, particulate matter (PM; PM < or = 2.5 microm [PM2.5] and < or = 10 microm [PM10] in aerodynamic diameter), elemental carbon, ultrafine particles, ozone, air exchange rates, allergens in settled dust, and particulate-associated metals. Participants completed five consecutive days of monitoring during the winter and summer of 2005 and 2006. During 2006, in addition to undertaking the air pollution measurements, asthmatic children completed respiratory health measurements (including peak flow meter tests and exhaled breath condensate) and tracked respiratory symptoms in a diary. Extensive quality assurance and quality control steps were implemented, including the collocation of instruments at the National Air Pollution Surveillance site operated by Environment Canada and at the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality site in Allen Park, Detroit, MI. During field sampling, duplicate and blank samples were also completed and these data are reported. In total, 50 adults and 51 asthmatic children were recruited to participate, resulting in 922 participant days of data. When comparing the methods used in the study with standard reference methods, field blanks were low and bias was acceptable, with most methods being within 20% of reference methods. Duplicates were typically within less than 10% of each other, indicating that study results can be used with confidence. This paper covers study design, recruitment, methodology, time activity diary, surveys, and quality assurance and control results for the different methods used.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor and outdoor air in Turkey: Estimations of sources and exposure

The aim of the current study was to measure polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in eight indoor (In both kitchen and living room) air sampling locations using a passive sampling method for collection. Passive outdoor air samples were also collected from 3 of the same sampling locations as the indoor air sampling sites. Sampling was conducted in three seasons. The summer season, when windows are generally open, was between 18th July and 01st September, 2014; the autumn and winter seasons, when windows are mostly closed, was between 18^th October and 01^st December, 2014, and 01^st December, 2014, and 18^th January, 2015, respectively.

Average PAH concentrations in summer were 22 ± 21 ng/m³ and 17 ± 12 ng/m³ in the living room and kitchen, respectively, whereas living room and kitchen average PAH concentrations were 23 ± 16 ng/m³ and 20 ± 9 ng/m³, respectively, in autumn and 23 ± 13 ng/m³ and 23 ± 24 ng/m³, respectively, in winter. Outdoor air PAH concentrations in summer, autumn and winter were 7 ± 0.4 ng/m³, 22 ± 13 ng/m³ and 209 ± 33 ng/m³, respectively. An increase in outdoor PAH concentrations was measured in winter compared to the concentrations in summer and autumn, which paralleled the lower outdoor air temperature. However, PAH concentrations in the indoor environment vary according to the household characteristics and personal habits.     

DEARS particulate matter relationships for personal,indoor, outdoor,and central site settings for a general population

This analysis provides the initial summary of PM_2.5 mass concentrations relationships for all seasons and participants for a general population in the Detroit Exposure and Aerosol Research Study (DEARS). The summary presented highlights the utility of the new methodologies applied, in addition to summarizing the particulate matter (PM) data.Results include the requirement to adjust the exposure data for monitor wearing compliance and measured environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) levels, even though the study design specified a non-smoking household. A 40% wearing compliance acceptance level was suggested as necessary to balance minimizing exposure misclassification (from poor compliance) and having sufficient data to conduct robust statistical analyses. An ETS threshold level equivalent to adding more than 1.5 μg m^?3 to the collected sample was found to be necessary to detect changes in the personal exposure factor (F_pex). It is not completely clear why such a large threshold level was necessary.Statistically significant spatial PM_2.5 gradients were identified in three of the six DEARS neighborhoods in Wayne County. These were expected, given the number of strong, localized PM sources in the Detroit (Michigan) metro area. Some residential outdoor bias levels compared with the central site at Allen Park exceeded 15%. After adjusting for ETS biases, the outdoor contributions to the personal exposure were typically larger by factors from 1.75 to 2.2 compared with those of the non-outdoor sources. The outdoor contribution was larger in the summer than in the winter, which is consistent with the fractions of time spent outdoors in the summer vs. the winter (6.7% vs. 1.1% of the time).Mean personal PM_2.5 cloud levels for the general population DEARS cohort ranged from 1.5 to 3.8 (after ETS adjustment) and were comparable to those reported previously. The personal exposure collections indoors were typically at least 13 times greater than those contributed outdoors.     

The validation of a passive sampler for indoor and outdoor concentrations of volatile organic compounds

Volatile organics compounds (VOCs) are ubiquitous in the air we breathe. The use of passive samplers to measure these concentrations can be an effective technique. When exposed for long durations, a passive sampler may be a good tool for investigating chronic exposures to chemicals in the environment. A passive sampler that was designed for occupational exposures can be used as such a tool. Laboratory validation under as many conditions as possible needs to be accomplished so as to characterize the sampler with known parameters. This paper describes the methods and results of an investigation into the validity of using a passive monitor to sample VOCs for a three-week period. Two concentration levels, two relative humidities, and five VOCs were studied. Results indicate that the samplers work best under conditions of high concentration with low relative humidity and low concentration with high relative humidity. For the passive sampler, excluding chloroform, percent deviations from the predicted values varied between -41 and +22 percent; while the values between the passive and the active samplers varied between -27 and +24 percent. Benzene, heptane, and perchloroethylene were sampled with equal precision and accuracy.     

Personal exposures to NO2 in the EXPOLIS-study: relation to residential indoor,outdoor and workplace concentrations in Basel,Helsinki and Prague

Personal exposures, residential indoor, outdoor and workplace levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) were measured for 262 urban adult (25–55 years) participants in three EXPOLIS centres (Basel; Switzerland, Helsinki; Finland, and Prague; Czech Republic) using passive samplers for 48-h sampling periods during 1996–1997. The average residential outdoor and indoor NO₂ levels were lowest in Helsinki (24±12 and 18±11 μg m⁻³, respectively), highest in Prague (61±20 and 43±23 μg m⁻³), with Basel in between (36±13 and 27±13 μg m⁻³). Average workplace NO₂ levels, however, were highest in Basel (36±24 μg m⁻³), lowest in Helsinki (27±15 μg m⁻³), with Prague in between (30±18 μg m⁻³). A time-weighted microenvironmental exposure model explained 74% of the personal NO₂ exposure variation in all centres and in average 88% of the exposures. Log-linear regression models, using residential outdoor measurements (fixed site monitoring) combined with residential and work characteristics (i.e. work location, using gas appliances and keeping windows open), explained 48% (37%) of the personal NO₂ exposure variation. Regression models based on ambient fixed site concentrations alone explained only 11–19% of personal NO₂ exposure variation. Thus, ambient fixed site monitoring alone was a poor predictor for personal NO₂ exposure variation, but adding personal questionnaire information can significantly improve the predicting power.     

Indoor and outdoor carbonyl compounds in the hotel ballrooms in Guangzhou,China

Twenty-one carbonyl compounds were measured simultaneously at four hotel ballrooms in urban Guangzhou during the autumn, 2002. In each ballroom, measurements were carried out in business hours in the evening (20:30–24:00) on 7 consecutive days without any disturbance of the ballroom's normal operation. Nineteen out of the 21 target carbonyl compounds were identified in indoor and outdoor air. In the outdoor environment, formaldehyde was the most abundant carbonyl, followed by acetaldehyde, and there existed a strong correlation between formaldehyde and acetaldehyde. In the indoor air, however, acetaldehyde was the most abundant carbonyl, its concentrations seemed to be affected significantly by smoking. The indoor concentrations of carbonyls were found higher than their outdoor counterparts with only a few exceptions. Further studies concerning the indoor/outdoor ratios and mutual correlation of the carbonyls indicated that apart from direct emission from indoor materials and infiltration of outdoor air, other anthropogenic sources, e.g. tobacco smoke, also significantly contributed to carbonyl compounds. The possible sources of some high molecular weight carbonyls, e.g. nonanaldehyde, were also discussed briefly. Preliminary estimate of the exposures and risks due to carbonyls in the ballrooms was made, which indicated that long-term exposure in such places might cause increased chance of developing cancers.     

Indoor/outdoor concentrations and indoor surface accumulations of ionic substances

The airborne concentrations of soluble ions in fine particles and coarse particles have been measured indoors and outdoors at telephone offices in Wichita, Kansas and Lubbock, Texas, These concentrations are compared with the mean annual indoor surface accumulations of these ions on zinc and aluminum structural surfaces. On average, the major soluble ions contained in fine airborne particles are ammonium, sulfate, and nitrate, while those contained in coarse particles are calcium and nitrate. In the fine mode, potassium and chloride have indoor/outdoor ratios that are larger than those observed for the other ionic species, indicating the existence of a significant indoor source. In the coarse mode, similar comparisons show that sodium, chloride, and sometimes sulfate have significant indoor sources. For chloride, a simple model has been used for apportioning surface accumulation at each location due to corrosive chlorine gases, coarse particles, and fine particles. For other ions where corrosive gases are not important, the accumulation has been apportioned between coarse and fine particles. From these data, experimental deposition velocities for fine mode sulfate ions and coarse mode calcium ions were calculated to be 0.003 and l.0 cms⁻¹, respectively, at Wichita, while those at Lubbock were 0.005 and 0.2 cms⁻.     

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) in workplace and house dust from Vietnam: concentrations,profiles, emission sources,and exposure risk

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - The occurrence of nine phthalic acid esters (PAEs) were determined in indoor dust samples collected from vehicle repair shops, waste processing...     

Ambient levels of carbonyl compounds and their sources in Guangzhou,China

Ambient levels of carbonyl compounds and their possible sources, vehicular exhaust and cooking exhaust, were studied at seven places in Guangzhou, including five districts (a residential area, an industrial area, a botanical garden, a downtown area and a semi-rural area), a bus station and a restaurant during the period of June–September 2003. Nineteen carbonyl compounds were identified in the ambient air, of which acetone was the most abundant carbonyl, followed by formaldehyde and acetaldehyde. Only little changes were found in carbonyl concentration levels in the five different districts because of their dispersion and mixture in the atmosphere in summer. The lower correlations between the carbonyls’ concentrations might result from the mixture of carbonyls derived from different sources, including strong photochemical reactions at noon in summer. Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were the main carbonyls in bus station, while straight-chain carbonyls were comparatively abundant in cooking exhaust. Besides vehicular exhaust, cooking might be another major source of carbonyl compounds in Guangzhou City, especially for high molecular weight carbonyls.     

Exposure assessment of air pollutants: a review on spatial heterogeneity and indoor/outdoor/personal exposure to suspended particulate matter,nitrogen dioxide and ozone

This review describes databases of small-scale spatial variations and indoor, outdoor and personal measurements of air pollutants with the main focus on suspended particulate matter, and to a lesser extent, nitrogen dioxide and photochemical pollutants. The basic definitions and concepts of an exposure measurement are introduced as well as some study design considerations and implications of imprecise exposure measurements. Suspended particulate matter is complex with respect to particle size distributions, the chemical composition and its sources. With respect to small-scale spatial variations in urban areas, largest variations occur in the ultrafine (<0.1 μm) and the coarse mode (PM_10–2.5, resuspended dust). Secondary aerosols which contribute to the accumulation mode (0.1–2 μm) show quite homogenous spatial distribution. In general, small-scale spatial variations of PM_2.5 were described to be smaller than the spatial variations of PM₁₀. Recent studies in outdoor air show that ultrafine particle number counts have large spatial variations and that they are not well correlated to mass data. Sources of indoor particles are from outdoors and some specific indoor sources such as smoking and cooking for fine particles or moving of people (resuspension of dust) for coarse particles. The relationships between indoor, outdoor and personal levels are complex. The finer the particle size, the better becomes the correlation between indoor, outdoor and personal levels. Furthermore, correlations between these parameters are better in longitudinal analyses than in cross-sectional analyses. For NO₂ and O₃, the air chemistry is important. Both have considerable small-scale spatial variations within urban areas. In the absence of indoor sources such as gas appliances, NO₂ indoor/outdoor relationships are strong. For ozone, indoor levels are quite small. The study hypothesis largely determines the choice of a specific concept in exposure assessment, i.e. whether personal sampling is needed or if ambient monitoring is sufficient. Careful evaluation of the validity and improvements in precision of an exposure measure reduce error in the measurements and bias in the exposure–effect relationship.     

Experimental investigation of outdoor and indoor mean concentrations and concentration fluctuations of pollutants

Tracer gas was released upwind of a two-compartment complex shaped building under unstable atmospheric conditions. The mean wind direction was normal to or at 45° to the long face of the building. The general patterns of concentration distribution on the building external walls and inside the building were analysed and the influence of natural and mechanical ventilation on indoor concentration distributions was discussed. Mean concentration levels, as well as the concentration fluctuation intensity, were higher on the windward walls of the building, although concentration levels varied along each wall. Concentration fluctuations measured inside the building were lower than those measured outside. Inside the two compartments of the building, the time series of concentrations had a similar general behaviour; however, gas concentrations took approximately 1.5 times longer to reach the mean maximum concentration value at the downwind compartment 02 while they also decreased more rapidly in the upwind compartment 01 after the source was turned off. The highest indoor concentration and concentration fluctuation values were observed at the detectors located close to the windward walls, especially when the building windows were open. Experiments with and without natural ventilation suggested that infiltration and exfiltration of contaminants is much faster when the building windows are open, resulting to higher indoor concentration levels. Furthermore, mechanical ventilation tends to homogenize concentrations and suppress concentration fluctuations, leading to lower maximum concentration values.