Bioremediation of a weathered and a recently oil-contaminated soils from Brazil: a comparison study

The facility with which hydrocarbons can be removed from soils varies inversely with aging of soil samples as a result of weathering. Weathering refers to the result of biological, chemical and physical processes that can affect the type of hydrocarbons that remain in a soil. These processes enhance the sorption of hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs) to the soil matrix, decreasing the rate and extent of biodegradation. Additionally, pollutant compounds in high concentrations can more easily affect the microbial population of a recently contaminated soil than in a weathered one, leading to inhibition of the biodegradation process. The present work aimed at comparing the biodegradation efficiencies obtained in a recently oil-contaminated soil (spiked one) from Brazil and an weathered one, contaminated for four years, after the application of bioaugmentation and biostimulation techniques. Both soils were contaminated with 5.4% of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) and the highest biodegradation efficiency (7.4%) was reached for the weathered contaminated soil. It could be concluded that the low biodegradation efficiencies reached for all conditions tested reflect the treatment difficulty of a weathered soil contaminated with a high crude oil concentration. Moreover, both soils (weathered and recently contaminated) submitted to bioaugmentation and biostimulation techniques presented biodegradation efficiencies approximately twice as higher as the ones without the aforementioned treatment (natural attenuation).     

A comparison of the efficiency of different surfactants for removal of crude oil from contaminated soils

This paper presents the results from study investigating the efficiency with which different surfactants remove crude oil from contaminated soil using a soil washing process. The surfactants studied were aqueous solutions of rhamnolipid, saponin and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). The efficiency of surfactants' removal was quantified and then GC/MS analysis conducted to investigate the distribution of hydrocarbons remaining on the washed soil samples compared to those on a control. The results showed that SDS removed the most crude oil from soil, followed by rhamnolipid and then saponin. However, the different surfactants showed preferences in terms of which crude oil components they removed from the contaminated soil. SDS removed more of the aliphatics than aromatic hydrocarbons whereas saponin removed the aromatic hydrocarbon preferentially to the aliphatic hydrocarbons. Clearly these results provide important information for the selection of surfactants used to remove crude oil from contaminated soils.     

Detailed characterization of polar compounds of residual oil in contaminated soil revealed by Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry

Effects of remediation technologies on polar compounds of crude oil in contaminated soils have not been well understood when compared to hydrocarbons. In this study, ultrahigh resolution Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) was used to characterize the changes in NSO polar compounds of crude oil and residual oil after long-term natural attenuation, biostimulation and subsequent ozonation following biostimulation of contaminated soils. N₁ and O₁ species, which were abundant in the crude oil, were selectively biodegraded, and species with higher double bond equivalent values and smaller carbon numbers appeared to be more resistant to microbial alteration. O₂-O₆ species were enriched by biodegradation and contained a large number of compounds with a high degree of unsaturation. Ozone could react with a variety of polar compounds in residual oil after biodegradation and showed high reactivity with polar species containing aromatic or multi-aliphatic rings, including the residual N₁ and O₁ species, naphthenic acids and unsaturated O₃-O₆ compounds. Fatty acids and O₃-O₈ species dominated by saturated alkyl compounds were resistant to ozonation or the primarily incomplete ozonation products. Principal component analysis of identified peaks in the FT-ICR MS spectra provided a comprehensive overview of the complex samples at the molecular level and the results were consistent with the detailed analysis. Taken together, these results showed the high complexity of polar compounds in residual oils after biodegradation or ozonation in contaminated soil and would contribute to a better understanding of bioremediation and ozonation processes.     

Butanol extraction to predict bioavailability of PAHs in soil

The feasibility of a mild-solvent extraction procedure to predict the bioavailability of individual polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil was assessed. The quantities that were degraded during the course of biodegradation of phenanthrene and pyrene in soil with or without plants correlated with the amounts extracted by n-butanol, with R2 values of 0.971 and 0.994, respectively. Six consecutive groups of earthworms removed ca. 70% of the pyrene remaining after extensive biodegradation, a value similar to the quantity extracted by n-butanol. The amount of chrysene aged in sterilized soil that was extracted by n-butanol was not statistically different from the quantities assimilated by earth-worms (Eisenia fetida) introduced into the soil. Such a mild extraction procedure may be useful as a means of predicting PAH bioavailability.     

Solvent extraction for heavy crude oil removal from contaminated soils

A new strategy of heavy crude oil removal from contaminated soils was studied. The hexane-acetone solvent mixture was used to investigate the ability of solvent extraction technique for cleaning up soils under various extraction conditions. The mixtures of hexane and acetone (25 vol%) were demonstrated to be the most effective in removing petroleum hydrocarbons from contaminated soils and approx 90% of saturates, naphthene aromatics, polar aromatics, and 60% of nC₇-asphaltenes were removed. Kinetic experiments demonstrated that the equilibrium was reached in 5 min and the majority of the oil pollutants were removed within 0.5 min. The effect of the ratio between solvent and soil on the extraction efficiency was also studied and results showed that the efficiency would increase following the higher solvent soil ratio. Then the multistage continuous extraction was considered to enhance the removal efficiency of oil pollutants. Three stages crosscurrent and countercurrent solvent extraction with the solvent soil ratio 6:1 removed 97% oil contaminants from soil. Clearly the results showed that the mixed-solvent of hexane and acetone (25 vol%) with character of low-toxic, acceptable cost and high efficiency was promising in solvent extraction to remove heavy oil fractions as well as petroleum hydrocarbons from contaminated soils.     

Microbial activity in an acid resin deposit: biodegradation potential and ecotoxicology in an extremely acidic hydrocarbon contamination

Acid resins are residues produced in a recycling process for used oils that was in use in the forties and fifties of the last century. The resin-like material is highly contaminated with mineral oil hydrocarbons, extremely acidic and co-contaminated with substituted and aromatic hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. To determine the potential for microbial biodegradation the acid resin deposit and its surroundings were screened for microbial activity by soil respiration measurements. No microbial activity was found in the core deposit. However, biodegradation of hydrocarbons was possible in zones with a lower degree of contamination surrounding the deposit. An extreme acidophilic microbial community was detected close to the core deposit. With a simple ecotoxicological approach it could be shown that the pure acid resin that formed the major part of the core deposit, was toxic to the indigenous microflora due to its extremely low pH of 0-1.     

A Rapid In Situ Respiration Test for Measuring Aerobic Biodegradation Rates of Hydrocarbons in Soil

An in situ test method to measure the aerobic biodegradation rates of hydrocarbons in contaminated soil is presented. The test method provides an initial assessment of bioventing as a remediation technology for hydrocarbon-contaminated soil. The in situ respiration test consists of ventilating the contaminated soil of the unsatiirated zone with air and periodically monitoring the depletion of oxygen (O2) and production of carbon dioxide (CO2) over time after the air is turned off. The test is simple to implement and generally takes about four to five days to complete. The test was applied at eight hydrocarbon-contaminated sites of different geological and climatic conditions. These sites were contaminated with petroleum products or petroleum fuels, except for two sites where the contaminants were primarily polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Oxygen utilization rates for the eight sites ranged from 0.02 to 0.99 percent O2/hour. Estimated biodegradation rates ranged from 0.4 to 19 mg/kg of soil/day. These rates were similar to the biodegradation rates obtained from field and pilot studies using mass balance methods. Estimated biodegradation rates based on O2 utilization were generally more reliable (especially for alkaline soils) than rates based on CO2 production. CO2 produced from microbial respiration was probably converted to carbonate under alkaline conditions.     

Role of cyanobacteria in the biodegradation of crude oil by a tropical cyanobacterial mat

Cyanobacterial mats are ubiquitous in tropical petroleum-polluted environments. They form a high biodiversity microbial consortium that contains efficient hydrocarbons degraders. A cyanobacterial mat collected from a petroleum-contaminated environment located in Indonesia was studied for its biodegradation potential. In the field, the natural mat was shown to degrade efficiently the crude oil present in the environment. This natural mat demonstrated also a strong activity of degradation on model crude oil under laboratory conditions. In axenic cultures, the monospecific cyanobacterium Phormidium animale that constitute the bulk of the biomass did not exhibit any degradative capacity on hydrocarbons in the range of C13-C35 carbon atom number either in autotrophic or heterotrophic conditions. It was concluded that this cyanobacterial strain living on a heavily contaminated site had no direct effect on biodegradation of crude oil, the degradation activity being exclusively achieved by the other microorganisms present in the microbial consortium of the mat.     

Plant performance, dioxygenase-expressing rhizosphere bacteria, and biodegradation of weathered hydrocarbons in contaminated soil

Two greenhouse pot experiments were conducted to investigate the potential of 13 plant species (grasses, cruciferes, legumes, herbs) to thrive in a long-term contaminated soil from a former manufactured gas plant (MGP) site, to promote the proliferation of total and aromatic ring dioxygenase-expressing bacteria (ARDB) in the root zone, and to foster the biodegradation of petrol hydrocarbons (PHCs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PHCs at 23200 mg kg(-1) and PAHs at 2194 mg kg(-1) reduced seed germination, plant survival, and shoot yields for most plants. Total bacteria and ARDB were generally more abundant in contaminated soil and were most numerous in the rhizosphere of mustard. During 68 d, the loss of total petrol hydrocarbons (TPHs) and total US EPA priority PAHs (TPAHs) was greatest in soil planted with hemp and mustard. Pea, cress, and pansy increased the amounts of PAHs extracted from soil, including an almost 60% increase for dibenzo(ah)anthracene. Plants may enhance the chemical extractability and perhaps biological availability of initially unextractable molecules.     

Biodegradation of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons by natural soil microflora and pure cultures of imperfect and lignolitic fungi

The biodegradation of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons by natural soil microflora and seven fungi species, including imperfect strains and higher level lignolitic species, is compared in a 90-day laboratory experiment using a natural, not-fertilized soil contaminated with 10% crude oil. The natural microbial soil assemblage isolated from an urban forest area was unable to significantly degrade crude oil, whereas pure fungi cultures effectively reduced the residues by 26-35% in 90 days. Normal alkanes were almost completely degraded in the first 15 days, whereas aromatic compounds (phenanthrene and methylphenanthrenes) exhibited slower kinetics. Aspergillus terreus and Fusarium solani, isolated from oil-polluted areas, produced the more efficient attack of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, respectively. Overall, imperfect fungi isolated from polluted soils showed a somewhat higher efficiency, but the performance of unadapted, indigenous, lignolitic fungi was comparable, and all three species, Pleurotus ostreatus, Trametes villosus and Coriolopsis rigida, effectively degraded aliphatic and aromatic components. The simultaneous, multivariate analysis of 22 parameters allowed the elucidation of a clear reactivity trend of the oil components during biodegradation: lower molecular weight n-alkanes > phenanthrene > 3-2-methylphenanthrenes > intermediate chain length n-alkanes > longer chain length n-alkanes > isoprenoids approximately 9-1-methylphenanthrenes. Irrespective of the individual degrading capacities, all fungi species tested seem to follow this decomposition sequence.     

Effects of nutrient and temperature on degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in contaminated sub-Antarctic soil

Mesocosm studies using sub-Antarctic soil artificially contaminated with diesel or crude oil were conducted in Kerguelen Archipelago (49 degrees 21' S, 70 degrees 13' E) in an attempt to evaluate the potential of a bioremediation approach in high latitude environments. All mesocosms were sampled on a regular basis over six months period. Soils responded positively to temperature increase from 4 degrees C to 20 degrees C, and to the addition of a commercial oleophilic fertilizer containing N and P. Both factors increased the hydrocarbon-degrading microbial abundance and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) degradation. In general, alkanes were faster degraded than polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). After 180 days, total alkane losses of both oils reached 77-95% whereas total PAHs never exceeded 80% with optimal conditions at 10 degrees C and fertilizer added. Detailed analysis of naphthalenes, dibenzothiophenes, phenanthrenes, and pyrenes showed a clear decrease of their degradation rate as a function of the size of the PAH molecules. During the experiment there was only a slight decrease in the toxicity, whereas the concentration of TPH decreased significantly during the same time. The most significant reduction in toxicity occurred at 4 degrees C. Therefore, bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated sub-Antarctic soil appears to be feasible, and various engineering strategies, such as heating or amending the soil can accelerate hydrocarbon degradation. However, the residual toxicity of contaminated soil remained drastically high before the desired cleanup is complete and it can represent a limiting factor in the bioremediation of sub-Antarctic soil.     

Spatial uncoupling of biodegradation, soil respiration, and PAH concentration in a creosote contaminated soil

Hotspots and coldspots of concentration and biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) marginally overlapped at the 0.5-100 m scale in a creosote contaminated soil in southern Sweden, suggesting that concentration and biodegradation had little spatial co-variation. Biodegradation was substantial and its spatial variability considerable and highly irregular, but it had no spatial autocorrelation. The soil concentration of PAHs explained only 20-30% of the variance of their biodegradation. Soil respiration was spatially autocorrelated. The spatial uncoupling between biodegradation and soil respiration seemed to be governed by the aging of PAHs in the soil, since biodegradation of added ¹³C phenanthrene covaried with both soil respiration and microbial biomass. The latter two were also correlated with high concentrations of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) that are common in gram-negative bacteria. However, several of the hotspots of biodegradation coincided with hotspots for the distribution of a PLFA indicative of fungal biomass.     

Modeling of vapor intrusion from hydrocarbon-contaminated sources accounting for aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation

A one-dimensional steady state vapor intrusion model including both anaerobic and oxygen-limited aerobic biodegradation was developed. The aerobic and anaerobic layer thickness are calculated by stoichiometrically coupling the reactive transport of vapors with oxygen transport and consumption. The model accounts for the different oxygen demand in the subsurface required to sustain the aerobic biodegradation of the compound(s) of concern and for the baseline soil oxygen respiration. In the case of anaerobic reaction under methanogenic conditions, the model accounts for the generation of methane which leads to a further oxygen demand, due to methane oxidation, in the aerobic zone. The model was solved analytically and applied, using representative parameter ranges and values, to identify under which site conditions the attenuation of hydrocarbons migrating into indoor environments is likely to be significant. Simulations were performed assuming a soil contaminated by toluene only, by a BTEX mixture, by Fresh Gasoline and by Weathered Gasoline. The obtained results have shown that for several site conditions oxygen concentration below the building is sufficient to sustain aerobic biodegradation. For these scenarios the aerobic biodegradation is the primary mechanism of attenuation, i.e. anaerobic contribution is negligible and a model accounting just for aerobic biodegradation can be used. On the contrary, in all cases where oxygen is not sufficient to sustain aerobic biodegradation alone (e.g. highly contaminated sources), anaerobic biodegradation can significantly contribute to the overall attenuation depending on the site specific conditions.     

Petroleum Pollutant Degradation by Surface Water Microorganisms (8 pp)

Background, Aims and Scope It is well known that the composition of petroleum or some of its processing products changes in the environment mostly under the influence of microorganisms. A series of experiments was conducted in order to define the optimum conditions for an efficient biodegradation of petroleum pollutant, or bioremediation of different segments of the environment. The aim of these investigations was to show to what extent the hydrocarbons of a petroleum pollutant are degraded by microbial cultures which were isolated as dominant microorganisms from a surface water of a wastewater canal of an oil refinery and a nitrogen plant. Biodegradation experiments were conducted on one paraffinic, and one naphthenic type of petroleum during a three month period under aerobic conditions, varying the following parameters: Inorganic (Kp) or an organic medium (Bh) with or without exposition to light. Methods Microorganisms were analyzed in a surface water sample from a canal (Pančevo, Serbia), into which wastewater from an oil refinery and a nitrogen plant is released. The consortia of microorganisms were isolated from the water sample (most abundant species: Phormidium foveolarum - filamentous Cyanobacteria, blue-green algae and Achanthes minutissima, diatoms, algae). The simulation experiments of biodegradation were conducted with the biomass suspension and crude oils Sirakovo (Sir, paraffinic type) and Velebit (Ve, naphthenic type). After a three month period, organic substance was extracted by means of chloroform. In the extracts, the content of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols and fatty acids was determined (the group composition). n-Alkanes and isoprenoid aliphatic alkanes, pristane and phytane, in the aliphatic fractions, were analyzed using gas chromatography (GC). Total isoprenoid aliphatic alkanes and polycyclic alkanes of sterane and triterpane types were analyzed by GC-MS. Results and discussion. Paraffinic type petroleums have a significant loss of saturated hydrocarbons. For naphthenic type petroleum, such a trend has not been observed. The most intensive degradation of n-alkanes and isoprenoid aliphatic alkanes (in paraffinic oil) and isoprenoids (in naphthenic oil) was observed using the inorganic medium Kp in the light; the microbial conversion is somewhat lower with Kp in the dark; with organic medium Bh in the light the degradation is of low intensity; with the same medium in the dark the degradation is hardly to be seen. Steranes and triterpanes were not affected by microbial degradation under the conditions used in our experiments. Obviously, the petroleum biodegradation was restricted to the acyclic aliphatics (n-alkanes and isoprenoids). Conclusion Phormidium foveolarum (filamentous Cyanobacteria - blue-green algae) and Achanthes minutissima (diatoms, algae), microbial cultures isolated as dominant algae from a surface water in a wastewater canal of an oil refinery and a nitrogen plant, have degradable effects dominantly involving petroleum hydocarbons. Petroleum microbiological degradation is more intensive when inorganic medium (in the light) is applied. Having in mind that the inorganic pollutants have been released into the canal as well, this medium reflects more the natural environmental conditions. Polycyclic alkanes of sterane and triterpane type, in spite of the fact that these compounds could be degraded, have remained unchanged regarding abundance and distribution. Since this is the case even for naphthenic type petroleum (which is depleted in n-alkanes), it can be concluded that the biodegradation of petroleum type pollutants, under natural conditions, will be restrained to the n-alkane and isoprenoid degradation. Recommendation and Outlook Performed experiments and simulations of petroleum microbiological degradation may serve for the prediction of the fate of petroleum type pollutants, as well as for definition of conditions for bioremediation of some environmental segments.     

Assessment of five bioaccessibility assays for predicting the efficacy of petroleum hydrocarbon biodegradation in aged contaminated soils

In this study, the bioaccessibility of petroleum hydrocarbons in aged contaminated soils (1.6-67gkg(-1)) was assessed using four non-exhaustive extraction techniques (100% 1-butanol, 100% 1-propanol, 50% 1-propanol in water and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin) and the persulfate oxidation method. Using linear regression analysis, residual hydrocarbon concentrations following bioaccessibility assessment were compared to residual hydrocarbon concentrations following biodegradation in laboratory-scale microcosms in order to determine whether bioaccessibility assays can predict the endpoint of hydrocarbon biodegradation. The relationship between residual hydrocarbon concentrations following microcosm biodegradation and bioaccessibility assessment was linear (r(2)=0.71-0.97) indicating that bioaccessibility assays have the potential to predict the extent of hydrocarbon biodegradation. However, the slope of best fit varied depending on the hydrocarbon fractional range assessed. For the C(10)-C(14) hydrocarbon fraction, the slope of best fit ranged from 0.12 to 0.27 indicating that the non-exhaustive or persulfate oxidation methods removed 3.5-8 times more hydrocarbons than biodegradation. Conversely, for the higher molecular weight hydrocarbon fractions (C(29)-C(36) and C(37)-C(40)), biodegradation removed up to 3.3 times more hydrocarbons compared to bioaccessibility assays with the resulting slope of best fit ranging from 1.0-1.9 to 2.0-3.3 respectively. For mid-range hydrocarbons (C(15)-C(28)), a slope of approximately one was obtained indicating that C(15)-C(28) hydrocarbon removal by these bioaccessibility assays may approximate the extent of biodegradation. While this study demonstrates the potential of predicting biodegradation endpoints using bioaccessibility assays, limitations of the study include a small data set and that all soils were collected from a single site, presumably resulting from a single contamination source. Further evaluation and validation is required using soils from a range of hydrocarbon contamination sources in order to develop robust assays for predicting bioremediation endpoints in the field.     

Prediction of complete bioremediation periods for PAH soil pollutants in different physical states by mechanistic models

Mass-transfer models and biodegradation models were developed for three theoretical physical states of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil. These mechanistic models were used to calculate the treatment periods necessary for complete removal of the PAH pollutants from the soil under batch conditions. Results indicate that the bioremediation of PAHs in such systems is mainly mass-transfer limited. The potential for bioremediation as a treatment technique for PAH contaminated soils is therefore mainly determined by the mass-transfer dynamics of PAHs. Under mass-transfer limited conditions simplified mathematical models, based on the assumption of a zero dissolved PAH concentrations, can be used to predict the period of time needed for complete bioremediation.     

Hexadecane and pristane degradation potential at the level of the aquifer—evidence from sediment incubations compared to in situ microcosms

Monitored natural attenuation is widely accepted as a sustainable remediation method. However, methods providing proof of proceeding natural attenuation within the water-unsaturated (vadose) zone are still relying on proxies such as measurements of reactive and non-reactive gases, or sediment sampling and subsequent mineralisation assays, under artificial conditions in the laboratory. In particular, at field sites contaminated with hydrophobic compounds, e.g. crude oil spills, an in situ evaluation of natural attenuation is needed, because in situ methods are assumed to provide less bias than investigations applying either proxies for biodegradation or off-site microcosm experiments. In order to compare the current toolbox of methods with the recently developed in situ microcosms, incubations with direct push-sampled sediments from the vadose and the aquifer zones of a site contaminated with crude oil were carried out in conventional microcosms and in situ microcosms. The results demonstrate the applicability of the in situ microcosm approach also outside water-saturated aquifer conditions in the vadose zone. The sediment incubation experiments demonstrated turnover rates in a similar range (vadose, 4.7 mg/kg*day; aquifer, 6.4 mg_hexadecane/kg_soil/day) of hexadecane degradation in the vadose zone and the aquifer, although mediated by slightly different microbial communities according to the analysis of fatty acid patterns and amounts. Additional experiments had the task of evaluating the degradation potential for the branched-chain alkane pristane (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane). Although this compound is regarded to be hardly degradable in comparison to n-alkanes and is thus frequently used as a reference parameter for indexing the extent of biodegradation of crude oils, it could be shown to be degraded by means of the incubation experiments. Thus, the site had a high inherent potential for natural attenuation of crude oils both in the vadose zone and the aquifer.     

Biodegradation of cyclodextrins in soil

Cyclodextrins, especially random methylated betaCD (RAMEB) and hydroxypropyl betaCD (HPbetaCD), are becoming common enhancing additives in the bioremediation of soils formerly contaminated by hydrocarbons and/or other poorly bioavailable organic pollutants. Therefore, their degradation in the soil, particularly the most persistent RAMEB, has been of great concern. Like oil contaminants, these additives should be biodegradable via an environmentally safe technology. Hence, in this paper, the biodegradability of eight different cyclodextrins (CDs) in four different soils was examined under various treatment conditions in laboratory and pilot scale field experiments. This paper is the first report on the potential biological fate of CDs studied under a large variety of environmental conditions and in different soil ecosystems. Data on the potential relationship between CD biodegradation and the biological removal of hydrocarbons in the CD-amended contaminated soils are also given. All CDs were found to be more or less biodegradable; even the most persistent RAMEB was depleted from soils under favourable conditions. In the field experiments, the depletion of RAMEB to about 40% of its initial level was observed for a period of 2 years in hydrocarbon-contaminated soils of high organic matter and cell concentration.     

Advanced multivariate analysis to assess remediation of hydrocarbons in soils

Accurate monitoring of degradation levels in soils is essential in order to understand and achieve complete degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in contaminated soils. We aimed to develop the use of multivariate methods for the monitoring of biodegradation of diesel in soils and to determine if diesel contaminated soils could be remediated to a chemical composition similar to that of an uncontaminated soil. An incubation experiment was set up with three contrasting soil types. Each soil was exposed to diesel at varying stages of degradation and then analysed for key hydrocarbons throughout 161 days of incubation. Hydrocarbon distributions were analysed by Principal Coordinate Analysis and similar samples grouped by cluster analysis. Variation and differences between samples were determined using permutational multivariate analysis of variance. It was found that all soils followed trajectories approaching the chemical composition of the unpolluted soil. Some contaminated soils were no longer significantly different to that of uncontaminated soil after 161 days of incubation. The use of cluster analysis allows the assignment of a percentage chemical similarity of a diesel contaminated soil to an uncontaminated soil sample. This will aid in the monitoring of hydrocarbon contaminated sites and the establishment of potential endpoints for successful remediation.     

Air pollution modelling of the Calabrian pine forests withered by the Yatagan thermal power plant, Turkey

The emissions from the chimney of the Yatagan thermal power plant have caused a 3050-hectare forest to wither. Such air pollutants as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and fly ash are carried towards the Bencikdagi Calabrian pine forests on the prevailing north-east winds. To study these effects, the Q-Basic computer program developed for the Gaussian puff model was used with meteorological data provided by the Yatagan Meteorological Office and the pollutant loads formed by the thermal power plant. In the grid system on the map showing the surroundings of the thermal power plant, the concentrations of the pollutants in each grid square were determined. The Yatagan plant has three units containing 9000 mg/m3 sulfur dioxide, 1800 mg/m3 nitrogen oxides and 680 mg/m3 fly ash in its chimneys. The minimum pollutant emissions were found to be 100 μg/m3 SO₂, 20 μg/m3 NO_x2, and 77 μg/m3 NO_x