INTEGRATING SERVICE‐LEARNING INTO WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES1

ABSTRACT: The objective of this article is to open a dialogue on integrating service‐learning into community based watershed management programs and to discuss opportunities and challenges that a service‐learning program presents to universities and communities. The article presents the concept and definition of service‐learning, and arguments concerning why institutions of higher education and university faculty and students should be involved with community based watershed management programs. The article describes a case study for developing a service‐learning program for watershed management at Virginia Tech and discusses lessons learned from the case study. The paper concluded that to make a service‐learning program sustainable, there should be a long term plan, regular and effective communication with the stakeholders, and some incentives for faculty and students for long term commitment to the community based watershed management programs.     

INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT ON THE TRUCKEE RWER IN NEVADA1

ABSTRACT: The Truckee River is a vitally important water source for eastern California and western Nevada. It runs 100 miles from Lake Tahoe to Pyramid Lake in the Nevada desert and serves urban populations in greater Reno-Sparks and agricultural users in three Nevada counties. In the 1980s and 1990s, a number of state and local groups initiated projects which, taken collectively, have accomplished much to improve watershed management on the Truckee River. However, the task of writing a management plan for the entire watershed has not yet been undertaken. Key players in state, federal and local government agencies have instead chosen to focus specific improvement efforts on more manageable, achievable goals. The projects currently underway include a new agreement on reservoir operation, restoration of high priority sub-watersheds, public education and involvement, water conservation education, and water resource planning for the major urban population centers. The approach which has been adopted on the Truckee River continues to evolve as more and more people take an interest in the river's future. The many positive projects underway on the watershed are evaluated in terms of how well they meet the definition of the ambitious water resources strategy, “integrated watershed management.”     

PATTERNS OF WATERSHED URBANIZATION AND IMPACTS ON WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: Urban runoff contributes to nonpoint source pollution, but there is little understanding of the way that pattern and extent of urbanization contributes to this problem. Indicators of type and density of urbanization and access to municipal services were examined in six urban watersheds in Durham, North Carolina. Principal components analysis (PCA) was used to identify patterns in the distribution of these variables across the urban landscape. While spatial variation in urban environments is not perfectly captured by any one variable, the results suggest that most of the variation can be explained using several variables related to the extent and distribution of urban development. Multiple linear regression models were fit to relate these urbanization indicators to total phosphorus, total kjeldahl nitrogen, total suspended solids, and fecal coliforms. Development density was correlated to decreased water quality in each of the models. Indicators of urbanization type such as the house age, amount of contiguous impervious surface, and stormwater connectivity explained additional variation. In the nutrient models, access to city services was also an important factor. The results indicate that while urbanization density is important in predicting water quality, indicators of urbanization type and access to city services help explain additional variation in the models.     

STRATEGIES TO CONTROL NONPOINT SOURCE WATER POLLUTION1

ABSTRACT: Strategies for controlling nonpoint sources of water pollution are discussed in terms of three representative states and eighteen regional agencies. The programs in Virginia, New York, and Wisconsin are seen to exhibit control options which range from voluntary action to strict regulation. Four conclusions are drawn from the analysis. First, nonpoint sources of pollution are a major component of the overall water pollution problem in the three states. Second, technical controls are generally available to solve the problems. Third, existing controls programs are not necessarily technologically sound or cost effective. Finally, existing control programs are capable of instituting solutions to the problems if and only if specified actions take place within the respective states and regions in the future. Critical research needs are identified which will assist states and regions in developing cost effective programs to control nonpoint source pollution.     

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT MANPOWER AND EMPLOYER SURVEY1

ABSTRACT: Two surveys were conducted to determine the supply and demand for students trained in watershed management in the United States. The first survey of 23 educational institutions was conducted in 1978. Annual production of about 100 watershed graduates and employment success greater than 85 percent at all degree levels was indicated. The second survey of watershed employment within the U.S. Forest Service (conducted in 1979) indicated one-third of the annual supply of watershed graduates could be employed by the agency; a fact verified by employment data supplied by educational institutions.     

WALNUT CREEK WATERSHED MONITORING PROJECT,IOWA MONITORING WATER QUALITY IN RESPONSE TO PRAIRIE RESTORATION1

ABSTRACT: Land use and surface water data for nitrogen and pesticides (1995 to 1997) are reported for the Walnut Creek Watershed Monitoring Project, Jasper County Iowa. The Walnut Creek project was established in 1995 as a nonpoint source monitoring program in relation to watershed habitat restoration and agricultural management changes implemented at the Neal Smith National Wildlife Refuge by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The monitoring project utilizes a paired‐watershed approach (Walnut and Squaw creeks) as well as upstream/downstream comparisons on Walnut for analysis and tracking of trends. From 1992 to 1997, 13.4 percent of the watershed was converted from row crop to native prairie in the Walnut Creek watershed. Including another 6 percent of watershed farmed on a cash‐rent basis, land use changes have been implemented on 19.4 percent of the watershed by the USFWS. Nitrogen and pesticide applications were reduced an estimated 18 percent and 28 percent in the watershed from land use changes. Atrazine was detected most often in surface water with frequencies of detection ranging from 76–86 percent. No significant differences were noted in atrazine concentrations between Walnut and Squaw Creek. Nitrate‐N concentrations measured in both watersheds were similar; both basins showed a similar pattern of detection and an overall reduction in nitrate‐N concentrations from upstream to downstream monitoring sites. Water quality improvements are suggested by nitrate‐N and chloride ratios less than one in the Walnut Creek watershed and low nitrate‐N concentrations measured in the subbasin of Walnut Creek containing the greatest amount of land use changes. Atrazine and nitrate‐N concentrations from the lower portion of the Walnut Creek watershed (including the prairie restoration area) may be decreasing in relation to the upstream untreated component of the watershed. The frequencies of pesticide detections and mean nitrate‐N concentrations appear related to the percentage of row crop in the basins and subbasins. Although some results are encouraging, definitive water quality improvements have not been observed during the first three years of monitoring. Possible reasons include: (1) more time is needed to adequately detect changes; (2) the size of the watershed is too large to detect improvements; (3) land use changes are not located in the area of the watershed where they would have greatest effect; or (4) water quality improvements have occurred but have been missed by the project monitoring design. Longer‐term monitoring will allow better evaluation of the impact of restoration activities on water quality.     

WATERSHED MODELS AND THEIR APPLICABILITY TO CONJUNCTIVE USE MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT: Techniques employed to simulate infiltration and subsurface ground-water flow were examined for a number of available watershed models. The large number of processes that these models simulate prohibits detailed analysis of subsurface flow, due to excessive computer and data requirements. Such models emphasize surface flow and include only that portion of water lost to the subsurface and the portion returned to the stream as baseflow. Problems were examined in adopting conjunctive use models, which allow the coordinated exploitation and management of both surface and ground-water resources. The application of conjunctive use models in water resources management is expected to increase dramatically over the next decade.     

INTEGRATING SOCIAL BENEFIT COST ACCOUNTING INTO WATERSHED RESTORATION AND PROTECTION PROGRAMS1

ABSTRACT: Successful watershed management requires consideration of multiple objectives and the efficient use of scarce public and private resources. One way to address these multi-faceted issues is through Social Benefit-Cost Accounting (SBCA). SBCA is a systematic method of addressing complex social and economic issues relevant to proposed watershed management projects. Benefits of using this technique include: benefits and costs of watershed projects are better understood; politically sensitive issues tend to be put into perspective; and stakeholders' interests are placed on a level playing field. An example from Bogota, Colombia demonstrates how SBCA can be used to value the benefits and costs of a proposed project. By addressing the benefits and costs to all stakeholders, the design of watershed management programs can be improved to achieve goals in a cost-effective manner.     

NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION POTENTIAL IN AN AGRICULTURAL WATERSHED IN NORTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA1

ABSTRACT: A 155,947 ha portion of the Shenango River watershed in western Pennsylvania was evaluated as to the potential impact of agriculture drainage on water quality. Approximately a third of the area is being used as either cropland or pasture with approximately an equal percentage in forest lands. Eleven subwatersheds were evaluated as to their potential for nonpoint source pollution according to the criteria established by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources for the Chesapeake Bay Pollution Abatement Program. The individual components and overall rating for each subwatershed were then evaluated as to their correlation with four water quality variables based on 104 samples collected at 26 sampling stations throughout the watershed. There was a significant correlation between the overall rating factor for each subwatershed and each of the four water quality variables. In general, the watershed delivery factor, animal nutrient factor, and management factors were correlated with fecal coliform and phosphorus in the receiving streams, whereas the ground water delivery factor appeared to be more important in determining nitrate concentrations in these streams. These results indicate that manure and nutrient management, along with the exclusion of livestock from streams and the enhancement and/or replacement of riparian wetlands, are important approaches in reducing agricultural impacts in fresh water ecosystems.     

SIMULATING HYDROLOGIC AND WATER QUALITY IMPACTS IN AN URBANIZING WATERSHED1

ABSTRACT: The Hydrologic Simulation Program‐Fortran (HSPF) was calibrated and used to assess the future effects of various land development scenarios on water quality in the Polecat Creek watershed in Caroline County, Virginia. Model parameters related to hydrology and water quality were calibrated and validated using observed stream flow and water quality data collected at the watershed outlet and the outlets of two sub water sheds. Using the county's Comprehensive Plan, land use scenarios were developed by taking into account the trends and spatial distributions of future development. The simulation results for the various land use scenarios indicate that runoff volume and peak rate increased as urban areas increased. Urbanization also increased sediment loads mainly due to increases in channel erosion. Constituent loads of total Kjeldal nitrogen, orthophosphorus, and total phosphorous for Polecat Creek watershed slightly decreased under future development scenarios. These reductions are due to increases in urban areas that typically contribute smaller quantities of nitrogen and phosphorous, as compared to agricultural areas. However, nitrate loads increased for the future land use scenarios, as compared to the existing land use. The increases in nitrate loads may result from increases in residential land and associated fertilizer use and concurrent decreases in forested land. The procedures used in this paper could assist local, state, and regional policy makers in developing land management strategies that minimize environmental impacts while allowing for future development.     

EVALUATING INTERDEPENDENT WATERSHED CONSERVATION AND GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT REFORMS1

Abstract: Conserving the watershed can help to preserve ground water recharge. Preventing overuse of available water through pricing reforms can also substantially increase the value of an aquifer. Inasmuch as users are accustomed to low prices, efficiency pricing may be politically infeasible, and watershed conservation may be considered as an alternative. We estimate and compare welfare gains from pricing reform and watershed conservation for a water management district in Oahu that obtains its water supply from the Pearl Harbor aquifer. We find that pricing reform is welfare superior to watershed conservation unless the latter is able to prevent very large recharge losses. Watershed conservation that yields net gains in combination with pricing reform may cause net losses without the pricing reform. If adoption of watershed conservation delays the implementation of pricing reform, the benefits of the latter are significantly reduced.     

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR STORM WATER AND INFILTRATION CONTROL1

ABSTRACT: Water quality controls of storm water runoff and infiltration should be a major part of a nonpoint source control program. Although surface runoff and ground water controls are often approached separately, coordination between the two is essential. For practical reasons, a rather simplified technology-based approach appears to be desirable. Areas affected vary greatly as to their sensitivity to pollution; and the various classes of pollutant source vary greatly as to their potential harmfulness. In effect, a matrix approach appears best, in which both vulnerability of the area and harmfulness of the pollutant source would have weight in determining which level of best management practices (BMP) would be appropriate, whether standard, special, or complete prohibition of the type facility under given circumstances.     

CHANGES IN LAND USE/MANAGEMENT AND WATER QUALITY IN THE LONG CREEK WATERSHED1

ABSTRACT: Surface water in the Long Creek watershed, located in western Piedmont region of North Carolina, was monitored from 1993 to 2001. The 8,190 ha watershed has undergone considerable land use and management changes during this period. Land use surveys have documented a 60 percent decrease in cropland area and a more than 200 percent increase in areas being developed into new homes. In addition, more than 200 conservation practices have been applied to the cropland and other agricultural land that remains in production. The water quality of Long Creek was monitored by collecting grab samples at four sites along Long Creek and continuously monitoring discharge at one site. The monitoring has documented a 70 percent reduction in median total phosphorus (TP) concentrations, with little reductions in nitrate and total Kjel‐dahl nitrogen, or suspended sediment levels. Fecal coliform (FC) and streptococci (FS) levels declined significantly downstream as compared to upstream during the last four years of monitoring. This decrease was attributed to the implementation of waste management practices and livestock exclusion fencing on three dairy operations in the watershed. Annual rainfall and discharge increased steadily until peaking in the third year of the monitoring period and varied while generally decreasing during the last four years of the project. An array of observation, pollutant concentration, and hydrologic data provide considerable evidence to suggest that the implementation of BMPs in the watershed have significantly reduced phosphorus and bacteria levels in Long Creek.     

ESTABLISHING WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN LAW: NEW ZEALAND'S EXPERIENCE1

ABSTRACT: New Zealand is one of the first countries in the world to enshrine the concept of watershed management in law, through institutional arrangements and the Resource Management Act of 1991 ‐ a law constructed on a watershed management legacy begun in 1941. This paper outlines the development of New Zealand's Resource Management Act (as it applies to water management) and the lessons that have been learned in its implementation.     

INTEGRATING SOCIO‐ECONOMIC AND BIOPHYSICAL DATA TO UNDERPIN COLLABORATIVE WATERSHED MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT: Watersheds are widely accepted as a useful geography for organizing natural resource management in Australia and the United States. It is assumed that effective action needs to be underpinned by an understanding of the interactions between people and the environment. While there has been some social research as part of watershed planning, there have been few attempts to integrate socio‐economic and biophysical data to improve the efficacy of watershed management. This paper explores that topic. With limited resources for social research, watershed partners in Australia chose to focus on gathering spatially referenced socio‐economic data using a mail survey to private landholders that would enable them to identify and refine priority issues, develop and improve communication with private landholders, choose policy options to accomplish watershed targets, and evaluate the achievement of intermediate watershed plan objectives. Experience with seven large watershed projects provides considerable insight about the needs of watershed planners, how to effectively engage them, and how to collect and integrate social data as part of watershed management.     

EFFECT OF WATER QUALITY STANDARDS ON FARM INCOME,RISK, AND NPS POLLUTION1

ABSTRACT: Enforceable standards play a crucial role in the design and implementation of most water quality policies. The impacts of these standards on farm income and nonpoint source (NPS) pollution can provide valuable information to develop economic policies that can improve water quality with minimal loss in income and minimal risk. This study uses an integration of nonlinear programming and a simulation model to assess the impacts of enforceable standards at technology and farm boundary levels. The results indicate that the type of pollutant regulated, enforcement type, and the level of standard had a significant impact on farm income and water quality. Choice of farm boundary standards over technology standards is dependent on the impact of the policy on other NPS pollutants, in addition to the reduction of nitrate and phosphorus pollutants. Enforcing farm boundary standards on nitrates had desirable effects on subsurface and percolate nitrogen and variance in income. Technology standards were uncertain in their effects because of the restriction on the choice of technologies available to farmers. A comparative policy analysis considering incentives, multiple impacts, transaction costs of implementation, and regional consideration is important to an effective policy design.     

DISTRIBUTIONAL IMPACTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: FEDERAL GRANTS FOR WATER POLLUTION CONTROL1

ABSTRACT: The income redistribution effects of waste water treatment grants are estimated for each state participating in five federal programs. Both gross and net effects per state and per capita are discussed. The impact of the tax structure used to finance such grants and the grant formulae are investigated.     

REEXAMINING BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR IMPROVING WATER QUALITY IN URBAN WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: Municipalities will be implementing structural best management practices at increasing rates in their effort to comply with Phase II of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). However, there is evidence that structural best management practices (BMPs) by themselves may be insufficient to attain desired water quality standards. This paper reports on an analysis of the median removal efficiencies of structural BMPs and compares them to removal efficiencies estimated as being necessary to attain water quality standards in the Rouge River in Detroit, Michigan. Eight water quality parameters are reviewed using data collected from 1994 to 1999 in the Rouge River. Currently, five of the eight parameters in the Rouge River including bacteria, biochemical oxygen demand, and total suspended solids (TSS) exceed the required water quality standards. The reported analysis of structural BMP efficiencies reveals that structural BMPs appear capable of reducing only some of the pollutants of concern to acceptable levels.     

WATERSHED OPTIMIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES: CONTINUOUS SIMULATION VERSUS DESIGN STORMS1

ABSTRACT: Nonpoint source (NPS) models and expert opinions are often used to prescribe best management practices (BMPs) for controlling NPS pollution. An optimization algorithm (e.g., a genetic algorithm, or GA) linked with a NPS model (e.g., Annualized AGricultural Nonpoint Source pollution model, or AnnAGNPS), can be used to more objectively prescribe BMPs and to optimize NPS pollution control measures by maximizing pollutant reduction and net monetary return from a watershed. Pollutant loads from design storms and annual loads from a continuous simulation can both be used for optimizing BMP schemes. However, which strategy results in a better solution (in terms of providing water quality protection) for a watershed is not clear. The specific objective of the study was to determine the differences in watershed pollutant loads, in an experimental watershed in Pennsylvania, resulting from optimization analyses performed using pollutant loads from a series of five 2‐yr 24‐hr storm events, a series of five 5‐yr 24‐hr storm events, and cumulative pollutant loads from a continuous simulation of five years of weather data. For each of these three different event alternatives, 100 near optimal solutions (BMP schemes) were generated. Sediment (Sed), sediment nitrogen (SedN), dissolved N (SolN), sediment organic carbon (SedOC), and sediment phosphorus (SedP) loads from a different five‐year period (an evaluation period) suggest that the optimal BMP schemes resulting from the use of annual cumulative pollutant loads from a continuous simulation of five years of weather data provide smaller cumulative NPS pollutant loads at the watershed outlet.     

COST MINIMIZATION OF NUTRIENT REDUCTION IN WATERSHED MANAGEMENT USING LINEAR PROGRAMMING1

ABSTRACT: Linear programming is applied to identify the least cost strategy for reaching politically specified phosphorus and total suspended solids reduction targets for the Fox-Wolf river basin in Northeast Wisconsin. The programming model uses data collected on annualized unit reduction costs associated with five categories of sources of phosphorus and total suspended solids discharge in each of the 41 sub-watersheds in the basin to determine the least cost management strategy. Results indicate that: (1) cost-effective nutrient reduction requires careful selection of geographic areas and source categories to address throughout the watershed; (2) agricultural sources are the most cost-effective to address in the basin; and (3) care should be exercised in setting nutrient reduction targets, given that there are likely to be significantly increasing marginal costs of nutrient reduction; the model predicts that lowering the most restrictive target by 33 percent would cut reduction expenditures by about 75 percent. Policy implications of the model include support for the investigation and potential development of institutional arrangements that enable cost-effective nutrient reduction activities to occur, such as the creation of an agency with authority over a given watershed, coordinated watershed management activities, or nutrient trading programs.