An assessment of ecosystem services of Corbett Tiger Reserve,India

This paper examines the economic value of selected ecosystem services of Corbett Tiger Reserve, India. The direct cost was derived from secondary sources, and indirect and opportunity costs through socioeconomic surveys. For recreational value the individual approach to travel cost method was used, and to assess carbon sequestration the replacement cost method was used. The maintenance cost of the reserve was estimated as US $2,153,174.3 year⁻¹. The indirect costs in terms of crop and livestock depredation by wild animals ranged from US $2,153,174.3 year⁻¹. The indirect costs in terms of crop and livestock depredation by wild animals ranged from US 2,408 to US $37,958 village⁻¹ over a period of 5 years. The dependence of local communities was for fuel wood (US $37,958 village⁻¹ over a period of 5 years. The dependence of local communities was for fuel wood (US 7,346 day⁻¹), fodder (US $5,290 day⁻¹), small timber, and other nontimber forest products. The recreational value of the reserve was estimated as US $5,290 day⁻¹), small timber, and other nontimber forest products. The recreational value of the reserve was estimated as US 167,619 year⁻¹. With the cost per visitor being US $2.5, the consumers’ surplus was large, showing the willingness of visitors to pay for wildlife recreation. The forests of the reserve mitigate carbon worth US $2.5, the consumers’ surplus was large, showing the willingness of visitors to pay for wildlife recreation. The forests of the reserve mitigate carbon worth US 63.6 million, with an annual flow of US $65.0 ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. The other benefits of the reserve include US $65.0 ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. The other benefits of the reserve include US 41 million through generation of electricity since 1972. The analysis reveals that, though the benefits outweigh costs, they need to be accrued to local communities so as to balance the distribution of benefits and costs.     

Financial viability of reforesting reclaimed surface mined lands, the burden of site conversion costs, and carbon payments as reforestation incentives

US Federal law mandates that mined land be returned by mine operators to a condition capable of supporting its pre-mining use or a higher use. Previously forested lands have commonly been reclaimed to hayland/pasture or wildlife habitat, and most of these lands have been abandoned from management and rendered non-productive. This situation has left landowners in the position of converting these reclaimed mined lands to forests at a later date, if they choose to make them economically productive. Such land-use conversion, however, comes with a substantial up-front cost to the landowner, which makes the financial viability of such a conversion questionable. We examine the financial viability of reforestation of these previously reclaimed mine lands by calculating land expectation value (LEV) under a range of conditions that include forest type, site quality, and reforestation intensity. We find that conversion to white pine is viable on higher quality sites under low to moderate interest rates with low or high timber prices, but conversion to mixed hardwoods is only profitable under the high price scenario with low interest rates, and only on higher quality sites. We also consider the implications of a shift in reforestation burden from the landowner to the mine operator, and results suggest that including costs of reforestation as part of the mining operation creates a financially viable forest enterprise for landowners under all scenarios for both white pine and mixed hardwoods. Two forms of carbon payments that could encourage reforestation of previously reclaimed mined lands also are examined: an annual payment based upon the total accumulated carbon found on-site in a given year, and an annual payment based on only the increment of carbon storage each year. Our carbon payment results indicate that annual values of up to $5.17 per ton of carbon stored in hardwoods and $9.39 per ton of carbon stored in pines would be required to make reforestation profitable under the poorest conditions (high interest rates, low prices, and poor quality site) when the payment is based on accumulated on-site carbon, although lower values are required under more favorable scenarios. Payments that are based upon the annual increment of carbon must fall in the range of $8.66–$71.88 per ton of carbon stored in hardwoods and $0–$83.29 per ton of carbon stored in pines to make reforestation financially viable.     

Screening analysis of volatile organic contaminants in commercial inorganic coagulants used for drinking water treatment

A method for quality screening is suggested to detect volatile impurities in inorganic coagulants that are used for drinking water treatment. Static headspace gas chromatography with mass spectrometry detection (HS–GCMS) is sensitive and selective to detect volatiles in low concentrations. This study has discovered that volatile organic impurities are detectable in ferric and aluminium-based coagulants which are used for drinking water treatment. For ferric chloride, 2-propanol was detected at a level of 17–24 μg ml⁻¹, acetone at 0.7–1.7 μg ml⁻¹, 1,1,1-trichloroacetone at 0.02–0.04 μg ml⁻¹, trichloromethane at 0.01–0.02 μg ml⁻¹ and toluene at 0.01–0.12 μg ml⁻¹. For ferric chloride sulfate, acetone was detected at a level of 0.12 μg ml⁻¹, 1,1,1-trichloroacetone at 0.06–0.08 μg ml⁻¹, trichloromethane at 0.13–0.23 μg ml⁻¹, bromodichloromethane at 0.04–0.06 μg ml⁻¹ and dibromochloromethane at 0.04–0.05 μg ml⁻¹. For aluminium hydroxide chloride, only trichloromethane was detectable, but below the method detection limits (MDL). Although the concentrations of these impurities in commercial coagulants are low, this observation is important and should have impact on water industries for them to pay attention to the chemicals they are using for drinking water production.     

Destruction of Wetlands and Waterbird Populations by Dams and Irrigation on the Murrumbidgee River in Arid Australia

The Lowbidgee floodplain is the Murrumbidgee Rivers major wetland in southeastern Australia. From more than 300,000 ha in the early 1900s, at least 76.5% was destroyed (58%) or degraded (18%) by dams (26 major storages), subsequent diversions and floodplain development. Diversions of about 2,144,000 ML year^–1 from the Murrumbidgee River come from a natural median flow of about 3,380,000 ML year^–1 providing water for Australias capital, hydroelectricity, and 273,000 ha of irrigation. Diversions have reduced the amount of water reaching the Lowbidgee floodplain by at least 60%, from 1888 to 1998. About 97,000 ha of Lowbidgee wetland was destroyed by development of the floodplain for an irrigation area (1975–1998), including building of 394 km of channels and 2,145 km of levee banks. Over 19 years (1983–2001), waterbird numbers estimated during annual aerial surveys collapsed by 90%, from an average of 139,939 (1983–1986) to 14,170 (1998–2001). Similar declines occurred across all functional groups: piscivores (82%), herbivores (87%), ducks and small grebe species (90%), large wading birds (91%), and small wading birds (95%), indicating a similar decline in the aquatic biota that formed their food base. Numbers of species also declined significantly by 21%. The Lowbidgee floodplain is an example of the ecological consequences of water resource development. Yanga Nature Reserve, within the Lowbidgee floodplain, conserved for its floodplain vegetation communities, will lose these communities because of insufficient water. Until conservation policies adequately protect river flows to important wetland areas, examples such as the Lowbidgee will continue to occur around the world.     

The cost of crop damage caused by ozone air pollution from motor vehicles

The effects of ozone air pollution on the agricultural sector are an important environmental challenge facing policy makers. Most studies of the economic impact of air pollution on agriculture have found that a 25% reduction in ambient ozone would provide benefits of at least $1–2 billion annually in the United States. This paper extends existing research by estimating the benefits of a reduction in emissions from a major source of ozone formation: motor-vehicle emissions. An agricultural production model is combined with an analysis of motor-vehicle emissions and air quality to estimate the impacts of emissions from six different motor-vehicle classes, at both the regional and national level. The benefits to the agricultural sector from completely eliminating ozone precursor emissions from motor vehicles ranges between $3·5 and $6·1 billion annually.     

Home beyond the house: Experiences of place in an evolving retirement community

This research presents the results of a qualitative study of a small sample of older adults (n = 25), age 55+ who have recently moved to an area that is rapidly changing from a tourist community into a retirement community. The study has two main research objectives: (a) to use Oswald and Wahl's heuristic meaning of home framework to explore the relationships between older adults and their homes and communities, integrating theories from environmental psychology, environmental gerontology and human geography, and (b) to discuss the empirical findings focussing on the core concepts of meaning of home and sense of belonging for new retirees to an area. Findings: For new retirees, there exists a zone between the home and community, that can be viewed as a geographic space comprised of overlapping and interwoven personal, social and physical domains. This zone between the physical house and the surrounding community can be construed as having certain elastic qualities and permeable boundaries that blur the distinctions between home and community. A focus on the micro-environment of the home dwelling and the macro-environment of the neighbourhood and community then appears relevant for understanding place attachment for these persons. This idea of the ‘home beyond the house’ – is one of the most important contributions of this research. Our results view the heuristic framework of Oswald and Wahl as a valuable tool for building understanding about the meaning of home for older adults by drawing attention to the domains themselves, and more importantly, to the interrelationships between them. Consequently, for younger in-migrants, the boundary between home and community blurs into one larger, symbolic entity experienced as ‘home’.     

Financing Landslide Hazard Mitigation in the United States

Landslides continue to be an expensive problem in the U nited States. This paper explores the difficult problem of how to pay for reducing existing landslide risks. The paper examines a hierarchy of methods to cover repair and long term maintenance of unstable areas: assessment districts; homeowner associations; and insurance. It looks at several examples, and finds that costs in all but the worst cases average about $5000 to $15 000 per property. Landslide insurance is shown to be feasible and could be designed so as to encourage mitigation. The paper concludes that an optimal approach for mitigation and compensation would combine insurance with assessment districts.     

Effects of Bridge Shading on Estuarine Marsh Benthic Invertebrate Community Structure and Function

The effect of bridge shading on estuarine marsh food webs was assessed by comparing benthic invertebrate communities beneath seven highway bridges with marshes outside of bridge-affected areas (reference marshes). We used light attenuation and height–width ratio (HW ratio), which takes into account the two main bridge characteristics that determine the degree of shading, to quantify the impact of shading on invertebrate communities. Low bridges, with HW ratio <0.7 and light attenuation greater than 85–90%, had benthic invertebrate densities and diversity that were significantly lower than reference marshes. Density of benthic invertebrates at low bridges was 25–52% (29,685–72,920 organisms/m²) of densities measured in adjacent reference marshes (119,329–173,351 organisms/m²). Likewise, there were fewer taxa under low bridges (5.8/11.35 cm² core) as compared to the reference marshes (9.0/11.35 cm² core). Density of numerically dominant taxa (e.g., oligochaetes and nematodes) as well as surface- and subsurface deposit feeders also were reduced under low bridges. Decreased invertebrate density, diversity, dominant taxa, and alterations of trophic feeding groups beneath low bridges was correlated with diminished above- and below-ground macrophyte biomass that presumably resulted in fewer food resources and available refuges from predators. With a greater knowledge of bridge shading effects, bridge construction and design may be improved to reduce the impacts on estuarine benthic invertebrate communities and overall ecosystem structure and function.     

A Baseline Study on Water Resources of the Tourist Island, Pulau Perhentian, Peninsular Malaysia, from an Ecological Perspective

Ambient water quality and bacterial populations in the water resources of Pulau Perhentian, a Marine Park of Malaysia, were studied during a peak tourist arrival, off-monsoon period. The overall water and bacteriological quality of swimming/boating sites in the island is at an acceptable condition, although the conductivity (0.88–60 mS m^–1) due to high dissolved solid concentrations is slightly high, when compared with the recommended standard and published guidelines for the protection/maintenance of recreation water and its aesthetic enjoyment (Universiti Malaya, Department of Environment, Malaysia, 1986). However, the bacteriological quality of the drinking/bathing water wells is poor, with faecal coliform counts (2 up to 1,600 MPN per 100 ml sample water) exceeding the permissible levels defined for raw water supplies (with or without treatment). This suggests that the groundwater, seepage and run-off into the wells is contaminated. Contrary to the belief of the water users being interviewed in a social survey, the untreated drinking/bathing water is not bacteria-free. The excessive counts are attributable to deoxygenated conditions (12–42 percent corresponding to 0.9–3.3 mg l^–1) prevailing in the wells, high total suspended solids (up to 202 mg l^–1) which promote bacterial growth, lack of adequate sewerage systems to receive effluents from lavatories of dwellings, chalets and resorts, as well as the lack of centralised water treatment plants and storage tanks to cope with water scarcity and waterway contamination.     

Simulating Direct and Indirect Damages to Commercial Fisheries from Marine Sand Mining: A Case Study in Korea

Rapid growth in marine sand mining for construction and other uses poses environmental challenges to coastal nations virtually worldwide. Yet the development of management policies, such as a system of fees imposed on operators for damage caused by mining, has been frustrated by a lack of studies to support such measures. Adapting a Beverton-Holt bioeconomic model, this paper attempts to contribute to the estimation of external costs to commercial fisheries due to marine mining. Using the major mining area of Ongjin in Korea as a case study, we estimate economic losses in use value of commercial fisheries through the time to recovery of the injured resource stocks. Present value of lost catch over a 1-year period from mining to resource recovery is estimated at $38,851 for a single “prototype” mining site. Estimated cumulative damages due to recurring mining for 5 and 10 years are $1.5 million and $2.2 million, respectively, at 20 mining sites. Sensitivity analyses are used to examine the effects of alternative assumptions to assess the many sources of uncertainty. Using a form of meta-analysis, dose-response information is used to assess the excess mortality the mining sediment plume has on eggs and larvae and, ultimately, on the value of lost catch ($841). Also addressed is the importance of specifying the appropriate “premining” conditions against which to assess environmental losses at the mining site. Damages estimated with premining fish populations are $23,066 higher than is the case using postmining conditions. Overall, the illustrative results suggest the variety of complex conditions which influence damage to fisheries from mining and which can benefit from further study to improve management guidelines. An erratum to this article can be found at     

USING CONTINGENT VALUATION AND BENEFIT TRANSFER TO EVALUATE WATER SUPPLY IMPROVEMENT BENEFITS1

ABSTRACT: Many water systems in small cities and rural areas throughout the United States are facing water quality and supply problems. These problems are typically not the result of an unexpected event, but are the result of growth trends or decreasing water quality experienced over several years. This analysis uses the contingent valuation and benefit transfer methods to evaluate the willingness to pay for a rural water system in northcentral Montana. Both of the procedures resulted in similar values, ranging from about $4.05 to $7.50 per household per month for urban residents and $5.40 to $11.50 per household per month for rural residents, which is equal to 11 percent to 23 percent of current average water costs. The willingness to pay estimates do not include non-household water users. This analysis shows that useful planning information can be obtained from relatively inexpensive contingent valuation mail survey data and the benefit transfer method as long as the limitations of the data are understood. The willingness to pay for ensuring good quality rural water supplies in the future is likely to be low compared to the costs of extensive diversion and treatment systems. Willingness to pay estimates provide decision makers with information that can be used to avoid building a large water supply system that water users do not want to connect to because of high costs.     

Economic simulation modeling of reprocessing alternatives for corn masa byproducts

Increasing production of corn masa for tortillas, chips, and related snack foods is resulting in large quantities of organic residuals requiring environmentally sound management. These byproduct streams appear suitable for use as livestock feed material, thus eliminating landfilling costs. Possibilities for developing livestock feed include direct shipping to livestock feeding facilities, blending prior to shipping, extrusion processing, pellet mill processing, and dehydration. To assess the viability of these options for reprocessing masa byproducts as livestock feed materials, an economic model was developed and applied to each of these alternatives. Through a series of simulation runs with this model, it was determined that direct shipping was by far the most inexpensive means of recycling masa processing residuals (10–57 $/Mg). Other alternatives examined in increasing order of costs included blending prior to shipping, extrusion, pellet mill processing (3–15, 5–18, and 4–18 times greater than direct shipping, respectively), while dehydration was clearly cost-prohibitive (33–81 times greater). Bagged feed was slightly more expensive to produce than bulk feed (1.1 times greater), and reprocessing costs increased as delivery distance increased, due to increased labor, equipment, and fuel costs, but decreased as byproduct generation rate increased, due to the development of the economies of scale. Alternately, based on a tipping fee of 50 $/Mg, the total estimated cost to landfill ranged from 65 to 112 $/Mg. Based on this cost analysis, direct shipping and feeding to livestock is the recycling option of choice for masa processing byproducts. Although specific details of process configurations and associated costs will vary, similar results are likely for other high moisture food processing residuals destined for utilization as livestock feed or components thereof.     

Bacterial pretreatment enhances removal of heavy metals during treatment of post-methanated distillery effluent by Typha angustata L

A combination of bacterial pretreatment followed by free water surface flow through wetland plants was investigated to determine its effect on removal of heavy metals in bioremediation of post-methanated distillery effluent (PMDE). The bacterial pretreatment was intended to transform the metal complexes and organic pollutants into simpler, biologically assimilable molecules. The 10% and 30% v/v concentrations of PMDE favored luxuriant bacterial growth; the 50% concentration supported less growth, whereas the undiluted effluent (i.e., 100%) supported very little bacterial growth. The use of bacterial pretreatment combined with the constructed wetland system greatly increase the overall bioaccumulation of all heavy metals by the plants compared with the control treatment. However, the integration of bacterial pretreatment of PMDE with the Typha angustata resulted in enhanced removal of Cd (34.02–61.50% increase), Cr (35.90–57.60% increase), Cu (32.88–54.22% increase), Fe (32.50–51.26% increase), Mn (35.99–82.85% increase), Ni (35.85–59.24% increase), Pb (33.45–59.51% increase) and Zn (31.95–53.70% increase) compared with a control that lacked this pretreatment. In addition to the bioaccumulation of these heavy metals, several physico-chemical parameters also improved at the 30% effluent concentration: color, BOD, COD, phenol and total nitrogen decreased by 98.33%, 98.89%, 98.50%, 93.75% and 82.39%, respectively, after 7 days of free water surface flow treatment. The results suggest that bacterial pretreatment of PMDE, integrated with phytoremediation will improve the treatment process of PMDE and promote safer disposal of this waste.     

The environmental impact of a chloro-alkali factory in a river basin in Eastern India

Summary It has been established that the electrodes of the dialyser in a chloro-alkali plant in Eastern India release mercury beyond the permissible limits into the River Koel. Mercury in elemental form, as well as certain organo-mercury compounds, including methyl mercury, have been detected at a distance of 25 km from the discharge point. Even at a distance of 5–10 km, the mercury content of the sediment may be as high as 0.6–3.2 mg kg^–1 above the value of sediment upstream of the plant. This sediment itself is contaminated, probably by battery and paint factories, etc., still further upstream. Thus, the chloro-alkali factory has contributed 60–320 times above the permissible limit (0.01 mg kg^–1) of mercury release, at a distance of 5–10 km from the point of release. Furthermore, various phytoplankton and zooplankton have been contaminated, leading to very high mercury contents in certain fish. This food chain, therefore, threatens man himself.Dr Sajalendu Nanda is currently a Research Associate at Bangur Institute of Neurology in Calcutta. He possesses an MSc in Environmental Biology and a PhD in Ecology. His address for correspondence is c/o Dr P.K. Tapaswi, Professor-in-Charge at the Biological Sciences Division of the Indian Statistical Institute.     

Review of fluoride removal from drinking water

Fluoride in drinking water has a profound effect on teeth and bones. Up to a small level (1–1.5 mg/L) this strengthens the enamel. Concentrations in the range of 1.5–4 mg/L result in dental fluorosis whereas with prolonged exposure at still higher fluoride concentrations (4–10 mg/L) dental fluorosis progresses to skeletal fluorosis. High fluoride concentrations in groundwater, up to more than 30 mg/L, occur widely, in many parts of the world. This review article is aimed at providing precise information on efforts made by various researchers in the field of fluoride removal for drinking water. The fluoride removal has been broadly divided in two sections dealing with membrane and adsorption techniques. Under the membrane techniques reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, dialysis and electro-dialysis have been discussed. Adsorption, which is a conventional technique, deals with adsorbents such as: alumina/aluminium based materials, clays and soils, calcium based minerals, synthetic compounds and carbon based materials. Studies on fluoride removal from aqueous solutions using various reversed zeolites, modified zeolites and ion exchange resins based on cross-linked polystyrene are reviewed. During the last few years, layered double oxides have been of interest as adsorbents for fluoride removal. Such recent developments have been briefly discussed.     

One laptop per child,local refurbishment or overseas donations? Sustainability assessment of computer supply scenarios for schools in Colombia

With the intention of bridging the ‘digital divide’ many programmes have been launched to provide computers for educational institutions, ranging from refurbishing second hand computers to delivering low cost new computers. The fast and economical provision of large quantities of equipment is one of the many challenges faced by such programmes. If an increase is to be achieved in the sustainability of computer supplies for schools, not only must equipment be provided, but also suitable training and maintenance delivered. Furthermore, appropriate recycling has to be ensured, so that end-of-life equipment can be dealt with properly. This study has evaluated the suitability of three computer supply scenarios to schools in Colombia: (i) ‘Colombian refurbishment’, -refurbishment of computers donated in Colombia, (ii) ‘Overseas refurbishment’, -import of computers which were donated and refurbished abroad, and (iii) ‘XO Laptop’, -purchase of low cost computers manufactured in Korea. The methods applied were: Material Flow Assessment, -to assess the quantities-, Life Cycle Assessment, -to assess the environmental impacts, and the application of the Multiple Attribute Utility Theory, -to analyse, evaluate and compare different scenarios. The most sustainable solution proved to be the local refurbishment of second hand computers of Colombian origin to an appropriate technical standard. The environmental impacts of such practices need to be evaluated carefully, as second hand appliances have to be maintained, require spare parts and sometimes use more energy than newer equipment. Providing schools with second hand computers from overseas and through programmes such as ‘One Laptop Per Child’ has the disadvantage that the potential for social improvements – such as creation of jobs and local industry involvement – is very low.     

Agricultural water pollution control: An interdisciplinary approach

Regulation and control of agricultural water pollution is unique and difficult to accomplish. Water quality standards are often proposed without adequate consideration of the overall economic impact on agricultural production. This article illustrates how economists and physical scientists can cooperate to develop appropriate control strategies for agricultural water pollution. Data provided by physical scientists and economists are used in a linear programming model to describe salt discharge as a function of water management, production levels, and an associated effluent charge. Four water management activities were chosen on the basis of different costs of production (including a parametrically varied effluent charge), water requirements, alfalfa yields, and levels of salt discharge. Results indicate that when the effluent charge is low (<$0.20/metric ton salt discharged), maximum production with maximum salt discharge is most profitable. As the effluent charge is increased ($0.20–$0.40/metric ton salt discharged), it becomes progressively less profitable to produce alfalfa at maximum levels of pollutant discharge. When the effluent charge is >$0.40/metric ton salt discharged, alfalfa production is no longer economically feasible. An important aspect of this approach is that it permits policy makers to identify explicitly the relationship between the environmental standard and the effect on agricultural production.     

Assessing corporate–community involvement strategies in the Nigerian oil industry: An empirical analysis

The desire of oil companies operating in the Niger Delta to secure their social license to operate, and address their community development obligations, has led in recent years to the adoption of corporate social responsibility (CSR) policies and strategies. Drawing on quantitative and qualitative data collected in host communities within the Niger Delta in Nigeria, the paper compares the effectiveness of two different corporate–community involvement strategies. The evidence suggests that while the corporate–community foundation model has certain advantages over the in-house community investment model, both approaches suffer from a common shortcoming that limits the impact of oil companies’ efforts on community development in their host communities. The paper concludes by exploring the implications of the research findings for corporate–community involvement in the Nigerian oil industry.     

Market and nonmarket values of the Georgia landscape

Natural landscapes produce goods and services, such as fish, wildlife, recreation, climate control, that are not adequately incorporated in their market values. Contingent Valuation (CV) and Energy Analysis (EA) approaches were used to estimate the nonmarket value of forests in Georgia. Both methods yielded similar estimates of approximately $200 ha^–1, which was 31% of the total market and nonmarket value of forests. Energy analysis was also used to estimate the nonmarket value of the major land uses in Georgia. Relative contributions of nonmarket value to total value ranged from 0.1% for urban areas to approximately 100% for wetlands. For the state as a whole, nonmarket production of natural and developed ecosystems was estimated at $2.6 billion. This value is comparable to annual marketed agricultural ($2.8 billion) and timber ($4.5 billion) production, both very important industries in Georgia. Changing land use patterns in Georgia and elsewhere are likely to be accompanied by shifts in the relative importances of market and non-market values.     

A RATIONALE FOR THE REGIONALIZATION OF PUBLIC WATER SYSTEMS1

ABSTRACT. A rationale is set forth for requiring and/or encouraging the consolidation or regionalization of all systems beneath certain population size levels based on the small water systems’ capability to produce an adequate supply of safe drinking water at a reasonable cost to customers. Estimates for basic costs of water service including personnel, other operation and maintenance and capital are made and a range of water rates is suggested based on reasonableness and acceptability to customers. Guidelines are then drawn for a moderate rate of $10.00 per month and an upper limit rate of $15.00 per month to show the sizes at which public water systems might be expected to achieve fiscal viability. Finally, recommendations are made to State and Federal governmental agencies concerning possible legislation, plans and programs to achieve better public water service through the regionalization or consolidation of small public water systems.