有机酸对砖红壤的溶解及固定态磷素的活化

选择柠檬酸、草酸、酒石酸和苹果酸4种土壤中常见有机酸为研究对象,研究了它们与砖红壤反应后,Fe、Al的溶出特征以及P的释放规律,并对上述反应的机制进行了探讨.结果表明,草酸、酒石酸和苹果酸3种有机酸与土壤反应24h后,溶液中总Fe浓度随反应体系pH值升高而降低,但柠檬酸与土壤反应24h后,溶液中总Fe浓度则随反应体系pH值升高而增加.4种有机酸溶出土壤Fe的能力按草酸柠檬酸酒石酸苹果酸的顺序下降,溶出机制主要是络合溶解和还原溶解.溶液中Al的溶出量在4种有机酸-土壤体系中均随体系pH值升高而降低,且按草酸柠檬酸≈酒石酸苹果酸的顺序下降,溶出机制主要是质子溶解和络合溶解.有机酸对固定态磷素有明显活化效应,在草酸、酒石酸和苹果酸3种有机酸-土壤体系中,溶液中P浓度均随体系pH值升高而降低,但在柠檬酸-土壤体系中,则随体系pH值升高而增加.溶液中Al/P物质的量之比要远大于Fe/P物质的量之比,这表明土壤中P主要结合在铁氧化物表面,其活化与铁氧化物的溶解过程关系密切.此外,Al的存在对草酸活化固定态P有抑制作用。     

镉胁迫下双孢蘑菇发酵液中低分子量有机酸分泌量与镉含量变化

为探讨镉(Cd)胁迫对发酵液中双孢蘑菇菌丝低分子量有机酸分泌量和Cd含量的影响,以双孢蘑菇A15为材料,通过摇瓶实验,分析不同Cd胁迫时间和胁迫浓度下发酵液中甲酸、乙酸、柠檬酸、苹果酸、草酸、酒石酸、琥珀酸和富马酸等8种低分子量有机酸、Cd含量及其相关性.结果显示:随胁迫时间和浓度增加,发酵液中有机酸种类和含量均差异显著(P 0.05).随着胁迫时间延长,无Cd和有Cd胁迫下,发酵液中甲酸、苹果酸、琥珀酸和乙酸含量变化趋势一致,甲酸基本呈增加的趋势,苹果酸和琥珀酸呈先增后减趋势,乙酸呈"双峰"模式;草酸、酒石酸、富马酸和柠檬酸含量变化趋势存在差异,无Cd胁迫下,草酸与酒石酸基本呈增加趋势,柠檬酸和富马酸呈减少趋势,Cd胁迫下,草酸和酒石酸呈"双峰"模式,柠檬酸和富马酸呈先增后减的趋势.双孢蘑菇Cd富集量随胁迫浓度的增大而增加,随胁迫时间延长先增后减.相关分析表明:胁迫前期(2 h-1 d),发酵液中Cd含量与富马酸、柠檬酸、苹果酸和乙酸呈显著负相关,与琥珀酸呈显著正相关;胁迫后期(3-7 d),与草酸呈显著负相关,与苹果酸呈显著正相关;整个胁迫过程中,与酒石酸呈显著正相关.低Cd(0.50和1.00 mg/L)胁迫下,发酵液中Cd含量与草酸、酒石酸、苹果酸、乙酸、柠檬酸、富马酸和琥珀酸呈显著负相关;高Cd(2.00、6.00和15.00 mg/L)胁迫下,与草酸、酒石酸、甲酸、乙酸、琥珀酸和总酸含量呈显著正相关,与柠檬酸和富马酸呈显著负相关.本研究表明Cd胁迫能够显著地影响双孢蘑菇菌丝分泌的有机酸的种类和含量,有机酸在双孢蘑菇抵抗Cd中起重要作用.(图4表4参50)     

有机酸对珠江三角洲水稻土镉解吸行为的影响

用批平衡实验方法,研究了3种有机酸及其两两混合酸在一系列pH值梯度下(pH3~7)对珠江三角洲沉积型水稻土镉(Cd)解吸的影响.结果表明,只有柠檬酸及含柠檬酸的混合酸在较低酸度区(pH>5)可以显著促进Cd的解吸,这一效应与浓度成正相关,而苹果酸、草酸及二者的混合酸在所试验酸度范围均促进了Cd吸附,特别是草酸,促进作用随浓度的升高而增强.在较低pH区(pH<5),苹果酸最有利于Cd解吸,在高pH区(pH≥5),柠檬酸最有利于Cd解吸,草酸的Cd解吸能力最低.混合有机酸交互作用不显著,对Cd解吸的影响约等于各个单独酸的作用之和,但在一些酸度条件下,可存在颉颃作用.图3表2参22     

有机酸与表面活性剂联合作用对土壤重金属的浸提效果研究

重金属污染土壤的原位淋洗修复既要实现对重金属的高效去除,还要尽量减少对土壤性质的破坏,这一点在农业污染土壤修复中尤为重要。以张士污灌区农田土壤为研究对象,利用振荡浸提技术筛选有机酸和表面活性剂组合,并确定了两者联合淋洗修复污染土壤的最佳配比。结果表明：有机酸（酒石酸、乙酸、柠檬酸和苹果酸）中的酒石酸浓度为0.5 mol.L-1和表面活性剂（SDBS、鼠李糖和皂素）中的皂素质量分数为0.7%时对土壤Cd、Pb、Zn的浸提效果较好;在酒石酸与皂素体积配比为1∶1时,对重金属Cd、Pb、Zn浸提效果最好,浸提率分别为87.62%、36.30%、20.67%;单一有机酸、表面活性剂或者有机酸与表面活性剂的混合溶液,对土壤重金属的浸提效果均为Cd〉Pb〉Zn。虽然有机酸与表面活性剂联合浸提效果略低于酒石酸浸提,但其弱酸性对土壤性质影响较小,在原位淋洗修复工程中有较好的应用前景。     

低分子量有机酸对可变电荷土壤吸附铝的影响机制

通过吸附性铝的解吸实验研究了低分子量有机酸对三种可变电荷土壤(2种砖红壤和1种赤红壤)吸附铝的影响机制，结果表明，柠檬酸、苹果酸和酒石酸等带有3个及3个以上活性官能团的有机酸在低pH条件下可以通过形成土壤一有机酸一铝三元表面络合物和增加土壤的表面负电荷两种机制显著增加土壤对铝离子的吸附量，但以前一种影响机制为主。乳酸、水杨酸、草酸和丙二酸等带有2个活性官能团的有机酸仅通过改变土壤的表面负电荷影响铝的吸附。土壤氧化铁是土壤吸附有机酸的主要载体，当用化学方法将土壤中的氧化铁除去后，有机酸对铝吸附的影响变小。在pH5．0时有机酸主要通过形成可溶性有机铝络合物减小土壤对铝的吸附，但有机酸的存在增加了Al^3 在吸附性铝中所占的比例，导致铝的解吸率增加。土壤中大量氧化铁的存在使其即使在低pH下也能对铝离子发生专性吸附，导致吸附性铝的解吸率减小。     

有机酸与表面活性剂联合作用对土壤重金属的浸提效果研究

重金属污染土壤的原位淋洗修复既要实现对重金属的高效去除,还要尽量减少对土壤性质的破坏,这一点在农业污染土壤修复中尤为重要。以张士污灌区农田土壤为研究对象,利用振荡浸提技术筛选有机酸和表面活性剂组合,并确定了两者联合淋洗修复污染土壤的最佳配比。结果表明:有机酸(酒石酸、乙酸、柠檬酸和苹果酸)中的酒石酸浓度为0.5 mol.L-1和表面活性剂(SDBS、鼠李糖和皂素)中的皂素质量分数为0.7%时对土壤Cd、Pb、Zn的浸提效果较好;在酒石酸与皂素体积配比为1∶1时,对重金属Cd、Pb、Zn浸提效果最好,浸提率分别为87.62%、36.30%、20.67%;单一有机酸、表面活性剂或者有机酸与表面活性剂的混合溶液,对土壤重金属的浸提效果均为Cd>Pb>Zn。虽然有机酸与表面活性剂联合浸提效果略低于酒石酸浸提,但其弱酸性对土壤性质影响较小,在原位淋洗修复工程中有较好的应用前景。     

Cd胁迫对续断菊Cd吸收分配及有机酸代谢的影响

通过水培试验,研究了Cd在续断菊(Sonchus asper L.Hill.)体内的亚细胞分布、化学形态,Cd对续断菊地上部和根部有机酸含量的影响,以及根系分泌低分子有机酸对Cd胁迫的响应.结果表明:(1)续断菊根部和地上部的Cd含量随Cd处理浓度增加而显著增加;(2)Cd在续断菊体内的化学提取形态分布为:NaCl提取态(F_(NaCl))HAC提取态(F_(HAC))HCl提取态(F_(HCl))残渣态(FR)去离子水提取态(FW)乙醇提取态(FE);(3)续断菊体内的Cd主要分布在细胞壁中,占总Cd含量的36%—47%,且随着Cd浓度的升高,细胞壁中的分布量增加;其次是细胞核中,占总含量的20%—33%;(4)续断菊体内低分子有机酸含量大小为:酒石酸苹果酸柠檬酸乙酸,酒石酸占有机酸总量的68%—96%,植株地上部和根部Cd含量均与体内苹果酸和柠檬酸含量显著正相关,相关系数为0.993和0.994(P0.01)、0.953和0.982(P0.05);(5)不同Cd浓度下,续断菊根系分泌低分子有机酸主要为酒石酸,占有机酸总量的52%—89%,且在30 d时与植株地上部和根部Cd含量显著正相关,相关系数为0.967和0.978(P0.05).根系分泌酒石酸和苹果酸促进了续断菊对Cd的吸收,续断菊体内的苹果酸和柠檬酸参与Cd的吸收、运输、积累,从而缓解了Cd的危害;同时,细胞壁固持和活性较强化学形态的减少是续断菊耐Cd胁迫的主要机制.     

低分子量有机化合物对MnO_2和土壤氧化锰的还原溶解作用

为考察土壤锰氧化物的还原溶解行为,本文选取常见的根系分泌的8种有机酸(抗坏血酸、香草酸、柠檬酸、草酸、酒石酸、水杨酸、半胱氨酸和邻苯二甲酸)和1种酚类化合物(邻苯二酚),人工合成的Mn O2和5种富含氧化锰的土壤(广东徐闻的砖红壤、海南澄迈的砖红壤、云南昆明的砖红壤、浙江嵊县的红壤和江苏南京的黄棕壤),研究了有机化合物对氧化锰的还原溶解作用.结果表明,较低p H和较高温度有利于有机化合物对Mn O2的还原溶解.在p H 4.5—5.5和温度5—45℃范围内,不同有机化合物还原溶解Mn O2能力的大小顺序为:邻苯二酚半胱氨酸抗坏血酸香草酸柠檬酸草酸≈酒石酸水杨酸≈邻苯二甲酸.邻苯二酚、半胱氨酸和抗坏血酸对土壤中氧化锰也有较强的还原溶解能力.当5种土壤比较时,徐闻砖红壤中还原溶解出的锰量最高,其次为昆明砖红壤,嵊县红壤中还原溶解出的锰量最小.当有还原性有机化合物存在时徐闻砖红壤、昆明砖红壤和澄迈砖红壤中的氧化锰容易发生还原溶解反应,增加土壤中可溶态和交换态Mn2+的含量,并可能对植物产生锰毒害.     

酸性条件下可变电荷土壤对锌的吸附动力学特征

用自行设计的动力学装置,研究了酸性条件下Zn在可变电荷土壤表面的反应动力学吸附特征.结果表明,在酸性条件下,Zn吸附过程分快反应和慢反应.从一级动力学方程拟合的参数可知,土壤的最大吸附量依次为砖红壤>赤红壤>红壤,表观最大吸附量随酸度增加显著下降,砖红壤、赤红壤和红壤在流入液pH5.5时zn的吸附量为2.81、2.72和1.83 mmol·kg-1;pH3.3时为1.0、0.38和0.12 mmol·kg-1.用Elovich方程和抛物线扩散方程常数b值,解释离子的表观扩散速率,三种土壤的b值依次为砖红壤>赤红壤>红壤,且随酸度的增大而降低.在Zn吸附过程中,pH5.5时,三种土壤流出液中有质子释放;当原液pH值为4.3、3.8和3.3时,都存在质子的消耗.砖红壤上快速消耗H+量远远大于红壤和赤红壤.反应初期,H+质子的消耗是快速反应,主要包括土壤交换阳离子的缓冲作用、土壤表面的质子化及硫酸专性吸附释放的羟基中和H+质子.     

酸性条件下可变电荷土壤表面Pb~(2+)-H~+反应动力学特征

研究了酸性条件下Pb在可变电荷土壤表面的反应动力学.结果表明,在酸性条件下,从一级动力学方程拟合的参数可知,三种土壤的最大吸附量依次为砖红壤>赤红壤>红壤,Pb最大吸附量随酸度的增加显著下降.红壤、赤红壤和砖红壤在pH 5.5处理的半反应时间(t1/2)分别为231 min,266 min和182min;pH 3.3处理的t1/2分别为43 min,26 min和32 min.用Elovrich方程和抛物线扩散方程常数(b)解释离子的表观扩散速率,三种土壤的b值依次为砖红壤>赤红壤>红壤,且随酸度的增大而降低.在Pb的吸附过程中,pH值为5.5和4.3时,红壤和赤红壤流出液中有质子释放;当原液pH值为3.3和3.8时,都存在质子的消耗.三种土壤H+的消耗过程有较大的区别,砖红壤快速消耗的H+量远远大于红壤和赤红壤.反应初期,H+的消耗是快速反应,主要包括土壤交换阳离子的缓冲作用、土壤表面的质子化及硫酸根专性吸附释放的羟基中和H+;而后反应中H+对矿物的溶解是一个缓慢过程.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.