Public engagement and climate adaptation: insights from three local governments in Australia

Public participation in decision making is a central component of the planning process; however, implementing effective engagement initiatives to resolve complex planning and policy problems, such as climate change, is challenging for planners. These challenges are particularly acute in coastal communities throughout Australia, where many settlements are at risk of future climate perturbations. Using the International Association for Public Participation framework for public participation, we analyse three local government led public participation initiatives in New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, Australia. Our analysis suggests there are three critical factors that can influence the level of public participation in the context of climate change adaptation: the technocratic approach to decision making; absent high order government support; and the lack of evaluation mechanisms for public participation.     

The good,the bad,and the statutory: are statutory or non-statutory natural resource management plans higher in quality?

Numerous governments around the world have adopted statutory mandates on plan content based on the assumption that they lead to greater consistency and higher quality of plans. While a number of studies have examined the relationship between mandates to develop plans and plan quality, there has been limited study of the influence of state mandates for plan content on plan quality in a regional natural resource management (NRM) planning context. This paper explores the relationship between the quality of regional NRM plans between statutory and non-statutory NRM regions in New South Wales and Queensland, Australia. An analysis of 22 regional NRM plans indicates that there is no evidence of a relationship between plan quality and the presence of statutory mandates for regional NRM plans in New South Wales and Queensland. However, the paper identifies and discusses several other factors with unexpected relationships with an impact on the quality of NRM plans in New South Wales and Queensland, Australia.     

The interpretation of planning appeals

The extent to which aggrieved applicants appeal against planning refusals varies between types of development, between regions and over time. So, too, though in lesser degree, does the extent to which appeals are successful. The paper seeks to explain these variations. It does so by arguing that the appeal rate varies with the support that central government ministers and their inspectors (the Central Planning Authority, CPA) give to the local planning authorities (LPAs), with appeal costs and with applicant and LPA willingness to renegotiate over refused applications. The appeal success rate is seen to be largely independent of the appeal rate and varies with potential appellants’ awareness of CPA policy and with their rationality.

It is concluded that appeal rate differences are best explained in terms of the CPA's support for the LPAs whether consideration is given to applications submitted nationally for different development types, to applications submitted in the eight English regions or to applications submitted in England and Wales over the period since 1974. Thus, CPA support for the LPAs is high in relation to change of use and householder developments but low in relation to development of the other major type; the CPA is less supportive of LPA policy in Yorkshire and Humberside and in East Anglia than in the other English regions, at least in the mid 1980s; and the CPA markedly reduced its support for the LPAs in England and Wales in the early 1980s.

It is also concluded that the low appeal success rate for minor residential development is the result of low appellant rationality, potential appellants being particularly determined to press their proposals against the odds. Appellant awareness of CPA policy and rationality may be comparable for the remaining development types since the appeal success rate shows little variation. Similarly, appellant awareness and rationality may be comparable in the eight English regions. In contrast, the appeal success rate in England and Wales as a whole has increased since 1974 perhaps because potential appellants are now more aware of CPA policy.     

Systematizing the production of environmental plans: an Australian example

Environmental planning legislation in New South Wales now requires local government authorities to draw up statutory plans that take into account, among other concerns, both the biophysical and the social environmental issues within their jurisdictions. The SIRO-PLAN method of plan production provides a systematic mechanism for fulfilling this requirement. This article describes the application of the method by planning researchers over 18 months to the production of a Local Environmental Plan for a rural local government in New South Wales. The policy formulation, the purposive data collection, and the deliberate adjustment of plans in order to recognize interest group requirements were all found to be valuable features of the method, while the translation of the ultimately chosen land-use plan into the explicit regulatory controls available to the local government authority was found to require further refinement. The capacity of SIRO-PLAN to quantify the resolution of competing environmental concerns in the final plan, although of value to planning researchers, proved too arcane for traditionally trained planners.     

Threatened Species Conservation in New South Wales,Australia: A Review of the Value of the Eight-part Test

The Threatened Species Conservation (TSC) Act, introduced in 1995, represents a significant attempt to conserve and restore biodiversity within the state of New South Wales, Australia. This Act aims to integrate land use planning and environmental impact assessment legislation by placing increased responsibility on applicants, proponents, consent and determining authorities, and the New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, in the fields of environmental planning, development control and biodiversity conservation. The TSC Act introduced a set of eight factors which have to be considered by decision makers in determining whether a development is likely to have a significant effect upon threatened species, populations, ecological communities or their habitats (the threatened biota) as listed in the Act. These eight factors are commonly referred to as the 'eight-part test'. Fifty environmental impact statements (EISs) containing eight-part tests for development proposals were obtained. The adequacy of scoping and survey exercises, the number of species identified and afforded the eight-part test, and the actual responses to each of the eight factors contained within the test, using a series of criteria, were ascertained. Sixty per cent provided an adequate scoping exercise; 6% of the surveys for flora species, and none for fauna species carried out, were adequate in terms of identifying all threatened species on the development site. Seven hundred and thirty-seven species listed in the Act were identified, 36% of which were omitted from the eight-part test procedure. The eight sections of the eight-part test were completed to a varying degree of adequacy, with none of the EISs completing all eight sections satisfactorily. Both section 4 (regarding the impacts of a development in terms of habitat isolation) and section 8 (regarding the distribution of species potentially affected by a development) were inadequately completed in all 50 EISs.     

The Importance of Process in Ecosystem Management: Lessons from the Lachlan Catchment,New South Wales,Australia

Effective river management requires integration of biophysical and human dimensions of the ecosystem, which in turn involves the development of new forms of decision-making processes and institutional frameworks. In New South Wales, institutional changes to river management have been formalized in the Water Management Act 2000. This paper presents the findings of a case study that investigated decision-making processes in the establishment of environmental flow regimes for the Lachlan River in western New South Wales. The study was based on document analysis, observation and interviews with members and support staff of a stakeholder-based river management committee. The findings of the study highlight social capital, adaptive management and consensus decision making as key components in establishing environmental flow regimes as part of a participatory approach to river management.     

Is environmental research and development on the right track? Australian examples

Summary The development products of environmental research lag behind in Australia. The conventional technology transfer model may not apply where environmental research, especially in the social sciences, is still seen as marginal to society. Pragmatic planning is needed for strategic security in times of trouble ahead. Cultural alignment with technological advance allows seduction by laboratories, white gladiatorial coats and expensive equipment imparting high credibility. A correctness for research futures disallows more radical pathways by the use of profit watchers, waste watch committees, technocrats and masculinist political views.A new protocol for environmental research and development calls for less complacency, scrutiny of political and military investment in nuclear futures, greater public policy analysis of issues such as pesticides in Australia's cotton industry, more attention to natural systems thresholds, radical review of social mores, more flexible management systems and closer links between strategic land use and environmental planning.She currently works for the New South Wales Department of Water Resources as a Senior Executive Officer. She has published widely on environmental policy analysis and water planning, and is a Director of Australia's National Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation.     

Implementation of two new resource management information systems in Australia

This paper describes the development and implementation ofPREPLAN, A Pristine Environment Planning Language and Simulator, for two conservation areas in Australia, Kosciusko National Park (New South Wales) and Tutanning Nature Reserve (Western Australia).PREPLAN was derived from the North American gradient modeling systems and theForest Planning Language and Simulator (FORPLAN), but includes unique characteristics not previously available.PREPLAN includes an integrated resource management data base, modules for predicting site-specific vegetation, fuels, animals, fire behavior, and fire effects, and an English language instruction set.PREPLAN was developed specifically to provide available information and understanding of ecosystems to managers in a readily accessible and usable form, and to provide the motivation to conduct additional required research projects. An evaluation of the system's advantages and limitations is presented, and the way the utilization of such systems is improving natural area decision making throughout Australia is discussed.     

UK interpretation and implementation of the EEC Shellfish directive

The EEC Shellfish Directive is a policy designed to protect and, where necessary, improve the quality of designated shellfish waters. Its implementation within the UK, however, has had no effect upon water quality for two reasons. First, the policy has important defects, having ambiguities concerning public health provisions and lacking designation criteria. Second, UK government has sought to achieve formal compliance, while at the same time ensuring that its full financial impact on public expenditure has been contained. Consequently, only those fisheries which already comply with water quality standards have been designated. Within Wales, one fishery has been designated, while other, commercially more important, but grossly contaminated shellfisheries have not.     

Estimation of Regional, Local and Site-specific Profitability of Soil Conservation for the Wheat-Sheep Zone of New South Wales, Australia

Information about the net benefits of land degradation treatment is required at the relevant management level, such as regional, local or site-specific, to assist decision makers in the allocation of funds to soil conservation. In this paper, estimates of regional opportunity costs of erosion and costs of treatment are used to derive benefit-cost ratios to assess the profitability of gully erosion treatment for localities in the wheat-sheep zone of New South Wales. These results are then used to develop site-specific models which predict benefit-cost ratios of treatment from land attributes including gully length, slope, soil type and land use. These predictive models form the basis of a rapid appraisal method to aid soil conservation decisions.     

Enforcement of mitigation measures resulting from environmental impact assessment

Until recently, relatively little attention has been paid to the problem of enforcing mitigation measures identified in environmental impact assessment. Present or proposed enforcement systems in the USA, New South Wales, South Australia, and Western Australia are described and discussed. Although the best enforcement system would depend on the local social, political, and legal systems, five universally desirable features are identified. First, a comprehensive coordinated monitoring and reassessment system is needed. Second, the agencies concerned must have adequate resources to do the work and incentives to carry it out well. Third, there must be the necessary legal powers. Fourth, provision must be made for changing the conditions based on experience. And fifth, the system should be equally effective against private companies and public authorities.     

Managing environmental impacts of energy development: Air quality in the Hunter Region,New South Wales,Australia

The Hunter Region in New South Wales, Australia, is undergoing rapid economic development based on its black coal resources. Cumulative impacts of new projects cannot be easily assessed with the traditional environmental impact statement. This article examines air quality impacts, and presents a systems analysis model to assist environmental management. The model consists of an input-output model of the regional economy and an air dispersion model. Results are obtained for sulfur oxides and fluorides.     

From Spatial to Local: The Impact of the European Union on Local Authority Planning in the UK

In 1998 the Minister for the Regions, Regeneration and Planning issued a statement which argued that the European context for planning had been largely missing from the planning system in England. This paper explores the impact of European Union (EU) membership on the practice of local authority planning in the UK. The research was based on nine local planning authorities in England, Scotland and Wales. The results indicate that EU membership has exerted a direct and indirect influence on planning at the local level. A classification of EU influences on local planning activities is developed. The research also indicates that the scope and structure of the UK planning system are being influenced by EU membership. There is considerable emphasis on the role of planning as a tool for sustainable development, and the development of environmental quality standards, coupled with existing policies in the sphere of nature conservation, present a challenge to the traditional approach of the UK planning system of balancing all material considerations.     

IntergovernmentalEnvironmental Planning: Addressing the Commitment Conundrum

Public policies aimed at environmental problems from improper land use typically work through or with the co-operation of local governments. But local governments sometimes fail to appreciate the importance of the environmental issues or programmes announced by higher level governments. In this paper, we use data on mitigation of natural hazards gathered in Florida in the US and New South Wales in Australia to demonstratethat planning mandates can suffer from gaps in local commitment to the environmental goals of higher level governments. Planning mandates must foster higher quality plans and also build supportivelocal political constituencies if they are to overcome this 'commitment conundrum'. We show that the needed improvements in the quality of plans can be fostered through capacity building. Supportive constituencies can be created through programmesthat enhance public awareness of environmental problems and also through provisions of environmental mandates that require local governments to undertake collaborative planning processes with affected stakeholders.     

An evaluation of the predictive performance of distributional models for flora and fauna in north-east New South Wales.

To use models of species distributions effectively in conservation planning, it is important to determine the predictive accuracy of such models. Extensive modelling of the distribution of vascular plant and vertebrate fauna species within north-east New South Wales has been undertaken by linking field survey data to environmental and geographical predictors using logistic regression. These models have been used in the development of a comprehensive and adequate reserve system within the region. We evaluate the predictive accuracy of models for 153 small reptile, arboreal marsupial, diurnal bird and vascular plant species for which independent evaluation data were available. The predictive performance of each model was evaluated using the relative operating characteristic curve to measure discrimination capacity. Good discrimination ability implies that a model's predictions provide an acceptable index of species occurrence. The discrimination capacity of 89% of the models was significantly better than random, with 70% of the models providing high levels of discrimination. Predictions generated by this type of modelling therefore provide a reasonably sound basis for regional conservation planning. The discrimination ability of models was highest for the less mobile biological groups, particularly the vascular plants and small reptiles. In the case of diurnal birds, poor performing models tended to be for species which occur mainly within specific habitats not well sampled by either the model development or evaluation data, highly mobile species, species that are locally nomadic or those that display very broad habitat requirements. Particular care needs to be exercised when employing models for these types of species in conservation planning.     

Local aspects of UK renewable energy development: exploring public beliefs and policy implications

Despite several recent UK initiatives to promote renewable energy development at the local level, little research has been carried out to investigate public beliefs about aspects of local renewable energy development. This research attempted to address this gap. Empirical data were collected at the Awel Aman Tawe development in South Wales immediately before and after a public participation process. The results indicate that support for specific aspects of local energy development (partnership with local communities, local use of generated energy and profits put back into the local community) was consistently high across time, with support for local ownership at a slightly lower level, yet still high. Secondly, socio-demographical analyses indicated that personal factors such as respondents' age, gender and employment status were important in shaping several of these beliefs. Since UK renewable energy development has often been controversial and subject to delay, results suggest that the adoption of a locally embedded development approach by public and private sector stakeholders will be strongly supported by local people. The implications of the results are discussed in relation to existing industry best practice guidelines and recent policy initiatives.     

Local aspects of UK renewable energy development: exploring public beliefs and policy implications

Despite several recent UK initiatives to promote renewable energy development at the local level, little research has been carried out to investigate public beliefs about aspects of local renewable energy development. This research attempted to address this gap. Empirical data were collected at the Awel Aman Tawe development in South Wales immediately before and after a public participation process. The results indicate that support for specific aspects of local energy development (partnership with local communities, local use of generated energy and profits put back into the local community) was consistently high across time, with support for local ownership at a slightly lower level, yet still high. Secondly, socio-demographical analyses indicated that personal factors such as respondents' age, gender and employment status were important in shaping several of these beliefs. Since UK renewable energy development has often been controversial and subject to delay, results suggest that the adoption of a locally embedded development approach by public and private sector stakeholders will be strongly supported by local people. The implications of the results are discussed in relation to existing industry best practice guidelines and recent policy initiatives.     

Water resources exploitation in Australian prehistory environment

Summary People have been living on the Australian continent for at least 40 000 years, possibly longer. Many significant environmental changes in climate, flora and fauna have occurred during that period of human occupation. Availability of water has been a constant concern. It was sought after, of necessity, due to the fairly consistent low precipitation rate throughout the continent, both along the coast, as well as inland to the very arid, dry desert area. From earliest times, ingenious methods of water resources exploitation were practised. There are significant examples of fish and eel trap systems in western Victoria. Another important fish trap exists at Brewarrina, in New South Wales. Coastal fish traps are in existence along many suitable seaboard locations, from the east coast to the west. Water, retained in naturally occurring rock pools, was extensively exploited. An important source of water, particularly in the arid inland was from the so called native wells. These wells sustained a great number of the white explorers in the 1840s to 1880s, amongst them Ludwig Leichhardt and Ernest Giles. Some interesting native wells, in former Aboriginal occupation sites, have even been traced in the Simpson Desert. The construction of the hydraulic structures which have remained in existence were carried out using simple tools and limited materials. A culture existed with the technical sophistication, ingenuity and skills to satisfy the water needs of the people in the environment of an arid continent over several thousand years.Hans Bandler is both an Editorial Board member and a Civil and Environmental Engineering consultant.     

Risk assessment for atmospheric environmental management: a case study in the Hunter Region of New South Wales,Australia

The theoretical framework of a risk assessment scheme is applied to air quality assessment in a developing region in Australia, the Hunter Valley in the state of New South Wales. It is found that the application of such a scheme high-lights a number of inadequacies in the air quality management. New modeling methodologies are found to be necessary to assess some air quality impacts, as existing knowledge is inadequate. The importance of extensive data bases is underlined as is the need for social surveys to supplement air pollution monitoring when gauging aesthetic effects of air pollutants.A visiting fellow on leave from the School of Australian Environmental Studies, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.     

More than something to hold the plants up: soil as a non-human ally in the struggle for food justice

Healthy, fertile soil is the material of life itself. It is chemically, biologically and physically structured to support the growth of healthy, environmentally sustainable foods. Recent years have seen a resurgent focus on soil science in Australia. Yet, the influence of soil in the politics of food systems has received comparatively little attention, despite long awareness in farming communities of how the natural world shapes farmers’ choices and possible actions. Drawing on work with SoilCare, a Landcare group with a focus on soil processes in the Northern Rivers of New South Wales, this paper explores the usefulness of approaching soil as an actor in food systems. Taking a participatory approach, and drawing on recent work on new materialisms, we argue that soil can be understood as an important ally in the struggle to shape a just and sustainable food system. While this work is intended to test this idea through a modest local case study, it may point to important new avenues for investigation in food politics.