Underwater blowout

Underwater blowouts are particularly undesirable from environmental point of view. They are difficult to handle. Wildcat drilling (searching for oil) may cause underwater blowout, but the probability of large oil spills is small. Testing a discovery carries the greatest risk related to exploration. The greatest risk of large oil spills in connection with production of offshore oil is for the future predicted to be associated with subsea completion. This technology is expected to become more and more into use. There is a need for formulating a blowout preparedness policy before this technology becomes more widespread. Ideas conceived by the author and Chen (1979), in his work done for Environment Canada indicate that it is technically possible to combat underwater blowout by subsea collection or confinement, if the decision makers find a preparedness based on surface collection or/and dispersion unsatisfactory from environmental point of view.     

Oil spill source identification by infrared,gas chromatographic,and trace metal analyses

Tests on several oil spills and their reference, unweathered oils, indicated that trace metals in oils such as V, Ni, Fe, and Mg are not appreciably influenced by weathering and that the use of characteristics trace-metal indicators can offer potential fingerprints for oil pollutants.     

上海海域溢油生态环境风险区划研究

上海海域海洋资源丰富,对于现今频发的溢油事故,开展相应的生态环境风险区划研究,对事故周边生态敏感资源采取及时有效防护,特别是饮用水源地的保护是尤为迫切和重要的。结合上海海域生态敏感资源分布情况和溢油特征信息,利用灰色模糊综合评价法,对海域生态敏感区敏感系数进行模糊评判,综合分析历年溢油事故及船舶流量统计资料,基于GIS平台对事故高发区污染源周边生态敏感区进行风险等级划分,以大比例尺上海海域溢油生态环境风险区划图直观反应溢油影响范围、高风险区和生态敏感资源保护顺序等信息,为事发后海域应急响应工作提供简便快捷的基础性分析依据。     

Evaporation of phenols from synthetic liquid fuel spills

The environmental impact of a synthetic-fuel spill on a waterway will be determined in part by the rate of dissolution of toxic components into the underlying water and by the rate of removal of those components from the oil by evaporation. In this study, the two film mass transfer model of volatilization was applied to the study of the evaporation of phenols from two synthetic liquid fuels. The rates of evaporation of phenol and alkylated phenols were measured under laboratory conditions. Liquid and gaseous mass transfer coefficients were measured experimentally, and used to calculate Henry's Law coefficients for various phenol-oil pairs from the observed evaporation rates. It was concluded that evaporation rates of phenols from synthetic oils would be significantly less than rates of dissolution in most spills.     

Enhanced oil recovery: Environmental issues and state regulatory programs

During 1977–1978, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) prepared environmental impact assessments for nine U.S. Department of Energy-sponsored enhanced oil recovery (EOR) field demonstration projects located in six states and reviewed the oil regulations for all oil-producing states. These evaluations revealed some potentially important environmental impacts associated with EOR including (1) pollution of land and surface waters from spills or leaks of oil and brine or other chemicals, (2) loss of biota, (3) excessive erosion and sedimentation (mostly in hilly terrain) and subsequent deterioration of surface-water quality, (4) contamination of groundwater, and (5) excessive air emissions from thermal operations. Potential groundwater impacts include (1) production of toxic and carcinogenic substances from synergistic interactions among chemicals used primarily in the micellar-polymer flooding technique, (2) formation of acid waters with small amounts of oil and metal residues and oxides from in situ combustion, and (3) corrosion of well casings and potential leaks of hydrogen sulfide primarily from injection of miscible carbon dioxide. For use of EOR techniques to expand in an environmentally acceptable manner, environmental planning (including monitoring, protection measures, and reclamation strategies) must be an integral part of the initial project development. Acceptable monitoring, prevention, mitigation, and reclamation procedures are available for most of the identified environmental problems, but the best techniques may not be known by operators or required by law. Most states have stringent controls for plugging abandoned wells and disposal of waste material, but these may not be enforced because of limited staff and funds. However, other environmental considerations, e.g., reclamation plans, water quality and other monitoring programs, and abandonment plans, are often lacking. The need for additional environmental planning and monitoring requirements specific to the oil-production industry is emphasized. States are encouraged to continue strengthening and upgrading their oil-regulatory programs to safeguard the environment. More studies are needed on (1) toxicity and carcinogenicity of chemicals used in injection processes, (2) evaluation of groundwater monitoring methods, and (3) reclamation procedures for soils contaminated by oil and brine.     

Communities of Wood-Attacking Fungi in the Region of Oil and Gas Production

The communities of xylotrophic fungi were studied in the northern and middle taiga subzones of western Siberia, in forests growing in the region of oil and gas production and exposed to various anthropogenic factors (emissions of petroleum gas flares, oil pollution, spills of mineralized oil-field water, etc.). Structural and functional rearrangements in these communities were revealed, and the prevalence of rot in the tree stand was assessed.     

Problems of Marine Ecological and Environmental Compensations of Oil Spill in China

Abstract

In recent years, the frequent occurrences of marine oil spills have already become one of the major reasons threatening the marine ecological safety of China. In the event of oil spill, other than taking the necessary emergent measures aiming specifically at the damage to the marine ecology and environment, using legal means to assure that the damage liabilities are borne by the responsible persons to protect the national interests are also very necessary. This paper advances five recommendations regarding the development of a system for ecological legal compensations from the standpoint of the current status of legislation and execution of the laws on compensation of oil spill polluting marine ecosystem. These five recommendations include: determination of the status of juristic action in marine ecological and environmental compensations in accordance with the laws, determination of plaintiff of marine ecological and environmental compensations in accordance with the laws, determination of the four basic principles in the legal actions of marine ecological and environmental compensations in accordance with the laws, determination of assessment technical standard of marine ecological and environmental damages in accordance with the laws, and determination of the scope of marine ecological and environmental compensations in accordance with the laws.     

Problems of Marine Ecological and Environmental Compensations of Oil Spill in China

In recent years, the frequent occurrences of marine oil spills have already become one of the major reasons threatening the marine ecological safety of China. In the event of oil spill, other than taking the necessary emergent measures aiming specifically at the damage to the marine ecology and environment, using legal means to assure that the damage liabilities are borne by the responsible persons to protect the national interests are also very necessary. This paper advances five recommendations regarding the development of a system for ecological legal compensations from the standpoint of the current status of legislation and execution of the laws on compensation of oil spill polluting marine ecosystem. These five recommendations include： determination of the status of juristic action in marine ecological and environmental compensations in accordance with the laws, determination of plaintiff of marine ecological and environmental compensations in accordance with the laws, determination of the four basic principles in the legal actions of marine ecological and environmental compensations in accordance with the laws, determination of assessment technical standard of marine ecological and environmental damages in accordance with the laws, and determination of the scope of marine ecological and environmental compensations in accordance with the laws.     

The Amoco Cadiz oil spill. Distribution and evolution of hydrocarbon concentrations in seawater and marine sediments

The shipwreck of the Amoco Cadiz supertanker on the rocks of the Brittany Coast of France (March, 1978) was one of the most disastrous oil spills ever recorded. The crude oils discharged in the marine environment were light petroleums. The distribution and the evolution of the oil pollution in the marine environment was examined. Chemical studies were limited to an overall estimate of the oil content to assess the importance and the extent of the pollution at the surface, in the water column, and in the sediment. UV fluorescence spectroscopy was used to detect oil in the seawater samples and IR spectrophotometry was used to analyze the sediment samples. Hydrocarbon concentrations in seawater ranged from 0.5 μ/1 to more than 100 μg/1. The oil spill has affected a very large section of the western English Channel. The diffusion of the hydrocarbons into the water column was observed. The evolution of the seawater pollution was followed, and the half-life of hydrocarbons in subsurface water was found to be between 11 and 28 days in different areas. One month after the disaster, the marine sediments were contaminated in the areas reached by the drifting slicks. The highest accumulation of petroleum in the sediments was located in the sheltered coastal environments. The natural decontamination process was found to be related to the nature of the sediment and the energy level of the geographic zone.     

Ecological effects of experimental oil spills in Eastern coastal plain estuaries

Ecological effects of weathered and unweathered Louisiana crude oil spilled in eastern coastal plain estuaries were evaluated at all trophic levels and the major chemical components of the oil were followed through selected components of the ecosystem for 36 months.The study site consisted of a natural estuarine marshcreek habitat off the York River, Virginia, modified by the construction of retaining walls to form aquatic and marsh areas in each experimental unit. Each system was closed on all sides with the exception of an opening below the level of lowest tide to allow communication with tidal flow. Five experimental units were constructed, each having a surface area of about 810 m², containing 695 m² of marsh, 100 m² of open water and 15 m² of intertidal mud flat. The most upstream unit served as the control and the four downstream units received dosages of fresh and weathered crude oil. In addition, biological sampling in the open marsh and creek areas was conducted to provide an estimate of the effects of containing the marsh.Five hundred and seventy liters of fresh South Louisiana crude were added to each of the two downstream experimental enclosures approximately three hours into flood tide and were completed in 1 h. The weathered oil was similarly applied to the upstream units 3 days later.The weathered oil was not visible one week after the spill except as coatings on marsh grass blades, while the fresh crude remained for over three weeks. Plankton populations recovered within a week, and fish mortalities, which were most pronounced in the weathered oil unit, ceased after 10 days.Reductions in standing crops of marsh grasses were most pronounced the year following the spills, when peak biomass in the control exceeded the spill units by a factor of three. Recovery progressed further in the second year with peak biomass in the oiled units being about 70% of the control. The third year following the spill, recovery was nearly complete.Benthic populations were dominated numerically by oligochaetes. Significant reductions in populations of this dominant organisms and in populations of polychaetes and amphipods were demonstrable for a period of three years although most of the populations have shown definite signs of recovery.     

Studies on process optimization of biodiesel production from waste cooking and palm oil

This work investigated the optimisation of biodiesel production from waste cooking oil (WCO) and palm oil using a two-step transesterification process for WCO and base catalysed transesterification for palm oil. Transesterification reactions were carried out to investigate the effects of prepared catalyst CaO, methanol/WCO and methanol/palm oil ratio and temperature on the yield of biodiesel. A series of experiments were conducted to determine the best conditions for biodiesel production, using methanol/oil ratio between 4:1 and 11:1 and contact time varying between 2 and 4 h. Biodiesel yield of around 90 and 70% was obtained for palm and waste cooking oil at the methanol/oil ratios of 6:1 and 8:1 at temperature of 60 °C for reaction time of 4 h using prepared CaO as catalyst. The physicochemical properties of palm and WCO biodiesel were carried out using standard methods, while the fatty acid profile was determined using gas chromatography. The investigation concludes that biodiesel obtained from palm and waste cooking oil was within the specified limit.     

Pollution prevention in the pharmaceutical industry

The pharmaceutical industry traditionally uses complex batch-type processes in the manufacture of medicines, although the production of specific medicines by continuous processes is currently envisaged. Due to the diversity of these processes, it is difficult to define a general set of waste prevention guidelines that would apply to all drug manufacturing. The most applicable methods of prevention can, however, be delineated for each of the five steps in the pharmaceutical manufacturing, i.e. (i) research and development, (ii) chemical synthesis, (iii) natural product extraction, (iv) fermentation and (v) product formulation. Waste streams generally arise from cleaning and sterilising equipment, chemical spills, rejected by-products and the processes themselves. Prevention mainly involves waste reduction by materials substitution, process modification/optimisation, waste stream segregation and solvent waste recycling. These measures are assessed and lead to guidelines for waste minimisation methods according to the waste streams under scrutiny.     

基于实测资料的长江河口南支河段盐水入侵规律分析

为对长江口南支河段盐水入侵规律有清晰的认识,在梳理、总结以往研究成果的基础上,通过对历年咸潮及氯度实测资料的分析,对长江口南支河段盐水入侵的规律进行了较为全面系统的分析研究。研究表明：北支盐水倒灌是长江口南支河段盐水入侵的主要来源;在研究水域,枯季大潮期氯度的沿程分布表现为两头高、中间低的“马鞍形”形式,枯季中潮期则为“高 低 高 低 高”的复杂的“W”形的分布形式;受外海潮汐和上游径流的综合作用,由大潮到中潮,倒灌盐水团在下移过程中,氯度的沿程分布形式发生了变异;近期盐水入侵的程度有加剧的趋势;研究水域2～3月盐水入侵最严重,在这段时间内盐水入侵超标次数多、历时长;当大通流量小于20 000 m3/s时,就可能发生明显的北支盐水倒灌南支现象;盐水入侵程度跟大通流量和潮汐强度密切相关;大通流量越大,盐水入侵程度越低;潮差越大,盐水入侵程度越高     

Improved oxidative stability of biodiesel via alternative processing methods using cottonseed oil

Biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO) requires antioxidants to meet oxidation stability specifications set forth in ASTM D6751 or EN 14214. In contrast, unrefined cottonseed oil (CSO), containing tocopherols and gossypol, produces biodiesel of higher oxidation stability. However, only a portion of these CSO endogenous antioxidants are suspected to be retained in biodiesel. Because the economics of biodiesel manufacturing rely upon inexpensive sources of triglycerides, emphasis was placed on developing improved alternative processing methods where WCO was the main source of methyl esters (WCOME) and CSO was used as a supplemental source of triglycerides and antioxidants in a 4:1 ratio. This study compared four processing methods for their ability to produce biodiesel of increased oxidative stability prepared from a 4:1 ratio of WCO:CSO. Two novel processing methods developed for this study utilise solvent properties of fatty acid methyl esters and glycerol to avoid additional chemical inventory for biodiesel processors. This study concludes that the two new processing methods resulted in biodiesel that had statistically significant improved oxidation stability when compared to two common industrial processing methods. Another significant finding is that high-shear homogenisation during transesterification reduced reaction time from the published one hour to 16 minutes.     

Re-thinking oil: compensation for non-production in Yasuní National Park challenging <Emphasis Type="Italic">sumak kawsay</Emphasis> and degrowth

The Yasuní-ITT Initiative was an innovative development proposal based on the non-production of oil in Yasuní National Park in Ecuador, in exchange for international compensation, eitherin the form of direct payment or payment for environmental services. My aim is to investigate how the different actors understand this compensation for non-production of oil in Ecuador, an oil dependent country. Using a chronological review of the Initiative and forty in-depth interviews with key players, I critically engage the ‘environmental narrative’ around the Initiative inspired by sumak kawsay -a philosophy of life based on non-mercantilist values, known as “well living” in English or “buen vivir” in Spanish- and degrowth. In this article I argue that understanding the Initiative as an environmental matter and not as a problem of oil rent dependency exemplifies the limits of sumak kawsay and degrowth as proposals for an alternative to development. Results from Yasuní show that the Initiative ended up reproducing the fictions of nature valuation instead of de-linking nature from the valuation process. By drawing on a critical political economic framework, this paper shows that categories such as “dependency” and “rent” are fundamental in understanding the challenges of moving away from extraction-based development in developing countries. In summary, failing to differentiate between payment for the non-production of oil and compensation from the environmental services, Yasuní was a ´lost ‘opportunity for a bottom-up debate on what to produce and what not.     

Effect of mixing chamber venturi,injection timing,compression ratio and EGR on the performance of dual-fuel engine operated with HOME and CNG

Stringent environmental policies and the ever increasing demand for energy have triggered interest in novel combustion technologies that use alternative fuels as energy sources. Of these, pilot-ignited compressed natural gas (CNG) engines that employ small biodiesel pilot to ignite a premixed natural gas–air mixture have received considerable attention. This paper discusses the effect of mixing chamber venturi, injection timing, compression ratio and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on the performance of dual-fuel engine operated on biodiesel derived from honge oil and is called honge oil methyl ester (HOME) and CNG. The proposed study mainly focuses on the manifold induction of CNG along with HOME injection. However, CNG can also be injected using port or direct gas injector (Lakshmanan and Nagarajan 2010, Energy 35, pp. 3172–3178). The future study will involve these methods of CNG injection. From this study, it is concluded that an advanced injection timing and an increased compression ratio resulted in increased brake thermal efficiency and reduced smoke, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions. However, nitrogen oxides (NO _x ) emission increased significantly. The increased NO _x emission was effectively reduced with EGR method. A mixing chamber venturi of 3 mm size, injection timing of 27° before top dead centre (BTDC), compression ratio of 17.5 and 10% EGR were found to be optimum for the modified compression ignition engine that was operated on CNG–HOME dual-fuel mode.     

Estimation of the impact of oil palm plantation establishment on greenhouse gas balance

Estimates of emissions indicate that if tropical grassland is rehabilitated by oil palm plantations, carbon fixation in plantation biomass and soil organic matter not only neutralises emissions caused by grassland conversion, but also results in the net removal of about 135 Mg carbon dioxide per hectare from the atmosphere. In contrast, the emission from forest conversion clearly exceeds the potential carbon fixation of oil palm plantings. Forest conversion on mineral soils to promote continued oil palm mono cropping causes a net release of approximately 650 Mg carbon dioxide equivalents per hectare, while the emission from peat forest conversion is even higher due to the decomposition of drained peat and the resulting emission of carbon oxide and nitrous oxide. The conversion of one hectare of forest on peat releases over 1,300 Mg carbon dioxide equivalents during the first 25-year cycle of oil palm growth. Depending on the peat depth, continuous decomposition augments the emission with each additional cycle at a magnitude of 800 Mg carbon dioxide equivalents per hectare. The creation of ‘flexibility mechanisms’ such as the clean development mechanism and emission trading in the Kyoto Protocol could incorporate plantations as carbon sinks in the effort to meet emission targets. Thus, for the oil palm industry, grassland rehabilitation is an option to preserve natural forest, avoid emissions and, if the sequestered carbon becomes tradable, an opportunity to generate additional revenue. Readers should send their comments on this paper to BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Minimizing the ecological impacts of oil spills

Oil spill response, whether planned by government agencies, oil spill cooperatives or individual companies, can be planned and carried out with the goal of minimizing ecological impacts, not merely removing visible oil. Two oil spill cooperatives on the west coast are implementing such planning. First, a coastal survey was conducted in the cooperative's area of responsibility. Physical processes and habitat types were examined. Oil spill cleanup guidelines were written for each habitat type. Biologically sensitive areas, those sites most vulnerable to oil spill impacts, were identified. Strategies were developed to protect most sensitive areas, i.e., prevent spilled oil from reaching them. Protection is the preferred option because it prevents both the impact of the oil and subsequent cleanup activities. Protected areas can often serve as repopulation centers for surrounding sites that may have been impacted. If minimizing ecological impact is to be a prime focus of oil spill response, ecologists should be involved in both the planning before and the field efforts during such spill events.     

Environmental Damage,Abandoned Treaties,and Fossil-Fuel Dependence: The Coming Costs of Oil-and-Gas Exploration in the “1002 Area” of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

Contrary to claims from American politicians, lobbyists, and oil and gas executives, allowing energy development in the Alaskan Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) will harm the environment, compromise international law, erode the social significance of wilderness protection, and ultimately fail to␣increase the energy security of the United States. After exploring a brief history of the ANWR controversy, this piece argues that the operation of oil and gas refineries in ANWR will release discharged solids, drilling waste, and dirty diesel fuel into the ecosystem’s food-chain, as they have from oil operations in Prudhoe Bay. Less obvious but equally important, oil and gas exploration in ANWR will violate a number of international treaties on biodiversity protection. In the end, development in ANWR will threaten the concept of wilderness protection, and will do little to end US dependence on foreign sources of energy. About the Author: Benjamin K. Sovacool is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Science and Technology Studies at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University in Blacksburg, Virginia. He works as a research analyst for the Consortium on Energy Restructuring and is a Senior Research Fellow for the Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research. He also just completed a Graduate Fellowship in Energy Policy at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.