动物废弃物源甲烷排放量的初步估算与减缓技术选择

根据ＩＰＣＣ的国家温室气体排放清单编制指南，初步计算了中国动物废弃物源的甲烷排放量。２０年间，中国动物废弃物源的甲烷排放量增加了７５％，１９９０年的甲烷排放量为１．１９８Ｔｇ，占全球的１０％左右。并提出发展沼气池、贮留池不仅能减少甲烷排放，而且能产生其它的环境效益和经济效益。     

中国反刍动物甲烷排放量的初步估算及减缓技术

根据ＯＥＣＤ提供的反刍动物甲烷排放量计算方法，结合中国反刍动物能量供应的特点，初步估算了中国反刍动物甲烷排放量。反刍动物摄入总能量的６．９％～７．５％通过甲烷排放而损失掉，１９９０年甲烷排放量为５．８０Ｔｇ，约为全球动物排放量的７．２％。文中提出采取秸秆处理，舔砖和过瘤蛋白使用，改善管理等改进措施，不仅可以提高生产水平，也可减少甲烷排放量。     

中国反刍动物甲烷排放量的初步估算及减缓技术

根据ＯＥＣＤ提供的反刍动物甲烷排放量计算方法，结合中国反刍动物能量供应的特点，初步估算了中国反刍动物甲烷排放量。反刍动物摄入总能量的６．９％￣７．５％通过甲烷排放而损失掉，１９９０年甲烷排放量为５．８０Ｔｇ，约为全球动物排放量的７．２％。文中提出采取秸秆处理，舔砖和过瘤蛋白使用，改善管理等改进措施，不仅可以提高生产水平，也可减少甲烷排放量。     

中国农业排放源甲烷排放量的估算

本文在收集大量资料的基础上,采用IPCC推荐的计算方法对中国农业排放源的甲烷排放量进行了较为详细的估算。分别得出了中国稻田甲烷排放量、家养动物甲烷排放量和农业残留物甲烷排放量。     

减少农业甲烷排放的技术选择

文章总结了温室气体甲烷的最新研究进展,包括:甲烷对全球变暖的贡献,甲烷的排放机理以及优先研究的领域;估算了我国农业甲烷排放的贡献:中国约占世界人工源甲烷排放量的10.48％,其中农业排放占一半以上;根据实验结果,提出了筛选低排放水稻品种、水分管理、施肥管理、改进饲料、使用添加剂和生长调节剂、改进遗传、促进繁育等减少稻田和反刍家畜甲烷排放的若干技术选择。     

施肥对稻田甲烷排放的影响

采用自动连续测量系统，对不同施肥情况下稻田甲烷排放通量进行了监测。结果表明：施肥是影响稻田甲烷排放的重要因素。增施有机肥会导致甲烷排放量增加．应用化肥可降低甲烷排放，有机肥加倍处理，３２ｄ甲烷总排放量１６．４０ｇＣＨ＿４／ｍ￣２，是化肥加倍处理的１．５６倍；常规施肥处理介于两者之间。略高于常规加倍处理。肥料种类对甲烷排放量也有影响。全施有机肥高于有机肥加化肥（１：１）组，施沼渣肥组次之，全化肥组排放量最低，不到全有机肥处理排放量的１／５．有机肥又以施人畜粪的甲烷排放率最高，绿肥次之，沼渣肥和稻草的甲烷排放率最低。有机肥的多级利用是减少稻田甲烷排放的一条重要途径。     

稻田施用沼渣对甲烷排放通量的影响

通过网室小区试验，观测得出：（１）４种沼渣处理和单施化肥处理的一季稻田平均甲烷排放通量为０．５６９～２．１８８ｍｇ０￣２·ｈ，两者无显著差异；农家肥处理稻田的平均甲烷排放通量为４４．１８ｍｇ／ｍ￣２·ｈ显著高于前两种处理，表明施用沼渣和化肥比施用农家肥能显著减少稻田甲烷排放量；（２）各处理稻田甲烷排放通量峰值期部出现在水稻蘖期至拔节初期，表明这一时期是控制稻田甲烷排放总量的关键时间；（３）各处理甲烷排放通量分别与淹水前各处理土壤及供试有机肥的易矿化碳含量、ＣＨ＿４－Ｃ含量呈显著正相关关系，这表明土壤易矿化碳含量是形成稻田甲烷的重要条件；（４）各处理之间水稻产量没有明显差异。     

水稻田烤田期间甲烷排放规律研究

报道了在镇江丘陵区水稻生产中的烤田期间不同处理的甲烷排放特点及其与土壤水分、氧化还原电位的关系。结果表明,在烤田初期有一个甲烷排放高峰,然后很快下降,烤田后期甲烷排放接近于零;前茬施用稻草,对烤田期间甲烷排放有显著的促进作用;不同氮肥用量对甲烷排放的影响规律不明显;烤田期间甲烷排放占水稻全生育期排放量的比例,在３．８６％～１３．９２％范围内变化。     

控制稻田甲烷排放的农业耕作条件的研究

在1990—1992年期间中国环境科学研究院观测了北京地区洼里乡的稻田中甲烷的排放情况。其间农田中施用了有机堆肥和几种化学肥料,以观察化学肥料和有机肥料对甲烷排放的影响。结果显示,在通常的农业耕作条件下本地区甲烷排放水平为17.6mg/m~2·h,并且在整个生长期中间有两个排放高峰,高峰期甲烷排放量占全年排放总量的65％以上,试验结果还显示有机肥料具有增加甲烷排放的作用;化学肥料,如硫胺、尿素等,在其有效作用期间,有抑制甲烷排放的作用,间歇灌溉是有效控制甲烷排放的方法之一。     

不同农业措施对稻田甲烷排放通量的影响

经过三年的田间试验发现,稻田甲烷排放通量随着农业措施的不同而大幅度地变化。在1990年至1992年的三个晚稻生长季节里,试验地块的甲烷排放通量分别为10.83、25.18及19.85mg/m~2·h。半旱式栽培使甲烷排放量减少了约1/3;施用硫酸铵、烤田、间歇灌溉亦可显著地降低甲烷排放通量。高有机肥与长期淹水是造成稻田甲烷排放量大的主要原因。控制稻田甲烷排放的关键在于调节灌溉水。只要采用合适的灌溉制度。有机肥用量的增加不一定引起甲烷排放量的增大。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.