Allergies to molds caused by fungal spores in air conditioning equipment

People suffering from various symptoms while in air-conditioned rooms often show sensitizations to fungi that can be isolated when the fungi are dremoved from air conditioners. By using specific challenge tests it was shown that fungal spores in air conditioners can evoke allergic symptoms. Hyposensitization was the specific therapy prescribed for such allergic reactions. After hyposensitization therapy, more than 70% of the patients so treated could live and work again in air-conditioned rooms without developing specific symptoms.     

Alternaria alternata allergens: Markers of exposure,phylogeny and risk of fungi-induced respiratory allergy

Alternaria alternata spores are considered a well-known biological contaminant and a very common potent aeroallergen source that is found in environmental samples. The most intense exposure to A. alternata allergens is likely to occur outdoors; however, Alternaria and other allergenic fungi can colonize in indoor environments and thereby increase the fungal aeroallergen exposure levels. A consequence of human exposure to fungal aeroallergens, sensitization to A. alternata, has been unequivocally associated with increased asthma severity. Among allergenic proteins described in this fungal specie, the major allergen, Alt a 1, has been reported as the main elicitor of airborne allergies in patients affected by a mold allergy and considered a marker of primary sensitization to A. alternata. Moreover, A. alternata sensitization seems to be a triggering factor in the development of poly-sensitization, most likely because of the capability of A. alternata to produce, in addition to Alt a 1, a broad and complex array of cross-reactive allergens that present homologs in several other allergenic sources. The study and understanding of A. alternata allergen information may be the key to explaining why sensitization to A. alternata is a risk factor for asthma and also why the severity of asthma is associated to this mold. Compared to other common environmental allergenic sources, such as pollens and dust mites, fungi are reported to be neglected and underestimated. The rise of the A. alternata allergy has enabled more research into the role of this fungal specie and its allergenic components in the induction of IgE-mediated respiratory diseases. Indeed, recent research on the identification and characterization of A. alternata allergens has allowed for the consideration of new perspectives in the categorization of allergenic molds, assessment of exposure and diagnosis of fungi-induced allergies.     

Validity of detection of microbial growth in buildings by trained dogs

Microbial growth in buildings may evoke respiratory and other symptoms in the occupants and promote decay of construction materials. The decay in wood is usually caused by dry-rot fungus, leading to the decomposition of cellulose and lignin. There are also some mold fungi and bacteria that can use wood as a nutrient. In this study, two trained dogs were used to detect microbial growth present in buildings. The rot fungi Serpula lacrymans, Coniophora puteana and Antrodia sinuosa were used in the training. In addition to decay samples, pieces of healthy birch, pine and imbued wood were used as controls. Another experiment was made using bacteria (Streptomyces sp.). In these experiments, a total of 100 decay, 75 control and 25 bacteria samples were used. The dogs detected 75% of the decay and 60% of the bacteria samples. Some (0-24%) control samples were also expressed as positive. Since the dogs identified also the bacteria samples without any specific training, a new test with some mold strains (Cladosporium, Botrytis, Trichoderma, Penicillium, Aspergillus) was carried out. The dogs found all the decay, mold and bacteria samples but only one sample of healthy wood. The use of dogs to detect mold or decay damage appears to have high specificity and high positive predictive value, but low sensitivity.     

Review of bioaerosols in indoor environment with special reference to sampling,analysis and control mechanisms

Several tiny organisms of various size ranges present in air are called airborne particles or bioaerosol which mainly includes live or dead fungi and bacteria, their secondary metabolites, viruses, pollens, etc. which have been related to health issues of human beings and other life stocks. Bio-terror attacks in 2001 as well as pandemic outbreak of flue due to influenza A H1N1 virus in 2009 have alarmed us about the importance of bioaerosol research. Hence characterization i.e. identification and quantification of different airborne microorganisms in various indoor environments is necessary to identify the associated risks and to establish exposure threshold. Along with the bioaerosol sampling and their analytical techniques, various literatures revealing the concentration levels of bioaerosol have been mentioned in this review thereby contributing to the knowledge of identification and quantification of bioaerosols and their different constituents in various indoor environments (both occupational and non-occupational sections). Apart from recognition of bioaerosol, developments of their control mechanisms also play an important role. Hence several control methods have also been briefly reviewed. However, several individual levels of efforts such as periodic cleaning operations, maintenance activities and proper ventilation system also serve in their best way to improve indoor air quality.     

滨海芦苇湿地土壤微生物数量对长期模拟增温的响应

采用开顶式生长室(Open-top chamber,OTC)连续8 a(2008~2015年)长期模拟温度升高,研究滨海芦苇湿地不同土壤深度,及两种代表植物芦苇(Phragmites australis)和白茅(Imperata cylindrical)根际、非根际土壤可培养微生物数量变化对长期增温的响应。结果表明:(1)相对于对照,长期增温导致土壤可培养微生物的数量显著增加。其中,增温对土壤表层细菌、真菌的数量影响显著,细菌在第一层的增幅最大,增加率为34.16%,真菌在第三层的增幅最大,增加了64.42%。增温对20~40 cm土层放线菌影响显著,其中在第二层达到最大增加率59.47%;(2)长期增温对芦苇根际土壤微生物的根际效应变化的影响不大,表现为各土层芦苇根际效应增温对照,而白茅根际真菌和放线菌分别在第二层和第三层有显著差异;(3)不同的植物类型,其根际可培养微生物数量及根际效应对长期增温的响应不一致,表现为芦苇和白茅根际土壤可培养微生物数量及根际效应的增加幅度不同,这可能与植物不同类型,根际分泌物种类、数量的差异有关。     

Prevalence and intensity of mycorrhiza formation in herbaceous plants with different types of ecological strategies in the Middle Urals

The prevalence of arbuscular mycorrhizas and abundance of mycorrhizal fungi in the roots of herbaceous plants with different types of Grime-Ramenskii’s ecological strategies (competitors, ruderals, and stress tolerators) have been studied in the Middle Urals. The closest association with arbuscular fungi has been observed in species with a competitive strategy. Compared to them, stress-tolerant species are characterized by lower abundance of mycorrhizal fungal hyphae in the root system, while ruderal plants include a relatively large proportion of nonmycotrophic species showing no interaction with arbuscular fungi.     

The effect of air control systems on the indoor distributions of viable particles

We have investigated the filtering effects of three types of air control systems of enclosed structures on viable particles in the ambient air. Aspergillus fumigatus and other thermophilic organisms were used as monitors for viable particles. The indoor concentrations of viable particles were found to be affected by building design and the use of conventional mechanical air systems. Viable particles of approximately 4.0 μm and greater in aerodynamic diameter were filtered from the air while respirable size particles less than 4.0 μm were not filtered as well. There was evidence of growth of viable particles within the mechanical air systems. Conventional air control systems may not be adequate for the control of viable particle contamination of the indoor environment without modifications and proper maintenance.     

Instantaneous dust exposure monitors

This is a review of investigations conducted to evaluate portable, direct reading instruments employing the principles of light scattering and the attenuation of beta-rays to measure the respirable mass concentration of airborne particulates. Data are presented on comparative measurements obtained with several different models of beta-ray attenuation instruments manufactured by the GCA Corporation and light scattering instruments manufactured by GCA Corporation, USA, Ernst Leitz, GmbH, Germany, Rotheroe and Mitchell, England, and Sibata Chemical Apparatus Manufacturing Company, Ltd., Japan, using aerosols of coal, limestone, Arizona road dust, and silica. The effect of aerosol parameters (concentration, size distribution, index of refraction) on instrument calibration and precision are discussed.     

Decreased influenza virus pathogenesis by infection with germicidal UV-irradiated airborne virus

Respiratory infections are acquired by the inhalation of airborne microorganisms. To evaluate the effect of germicidal UV-irradiation on airborne contagion, infectious clouds of influenza A/PR8/34 virus were generated and exposed to known intensities of UV. Thereafter, the airborne virus was used to infect mice wherein the pathogenesis of the viral pneumonia was evaluated. Increasing doses of UV inactivated infectious airborne virus in a dose-dependent manner and reduced the mortality rates as compared to an infectious cloud of untreated virus. When a sublethal cloud of infectious virus was used, UV-irradiation modified the viral infection, as quantitated by pulmonary virus titers, from a severe pneumonitis to a milder form of the disease. These data demonstrate the efficacy of germicidal UV-irradiation in disinfection of air by reducing the concentration of viable organisms which, in turn, reduces the severity of respiratory infection when transmitted to the susceptible host.     

Seasonal variation of 210Pb activity concentration in outdoor air of Milan (Italy)

Weekly measurements of 210Pb activity concentration on aerosol particles were performed at ground level in outdoor air in Milan (Italy) during the years 2000-2001. The experimental method was based on the delayed alpha spectrometry of in-grown 210Po activity detected on airborne particles collected on a filter support. On the same filter the 214Pb activity concentration was also measured during the sampling. 210Pb weekly concentration values showed a great variability and the average monthly values exhibited a seasonal pattern characterised by maxima in winter and minima in spring-summer. The same seasonal trend was also observed in 214Pb concentration values. 210Pb average yearly values were 0.70 and 0.82 mBq/m3 in 2000 and 2001, respectively, in good agreement with literature data registered at continental sites of similar latitude and longitude. The activity ratio 210Pb/214Pb was used to evaluate the residence time of fine aerosols in the urban air of Milan, which was 1-2 days.     

Role and influence of mycorrhizal fungi on radiocesium accumulation by plants

This review summarizes current knowledge on the contribution of mycorrhizal fungi to radiocesium immobilization and plant accumulation. These root symbionts develop extended hyphae in soils and readily contribute to the soil-to-plant transfer of some nutrients. Available data show that ecto-mycorrhizal (ECM) fungi can accumulate high concentration of radiocesium in their extraradical phase while radiocesium uptake and accumulation by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is limited. Yet, both ECM and AM fungi can transport radiocesium to their host plants, but this transport is low. In addition, mycorrhizal fungi could thus either store radiocesium in their intraradical phase or limit its root-to-shoot translocation. The review discusses the impact of soil characteristics, and fungal and plant transporters on radiocesium uptake and accumulation in plants, as well as the potential role of mycorrhizal fungi in phytoremediation strategies.     

Effect of tetracycline residues in pig manure slurry on tetracycline-resistant bacteria and resistance gene tet(M) in soil microcosms

Effects of tetracycline residues from pig manure slurry on the prevalence of tetracycline-resistant bacteria and the tetracycline resistance gene, tet(M), were studied in soil microcosms. Four types of soil microcosms were established for a period of 152 days, supplemented with combinations of pig manure slurry and a tetracycline-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, CG110, containing the tetracycline resistance gene tet(M) (on the conjugative transposon, Tn916). The prevalence of both tetracycline-resistant aerobic bacteria and tetracycline-resistant enterococci declined rapidly until day 45 where no significant differences in the levels of tetracycline-resistant bacteria in any of the four types of microcosms could be detected. tet(M) could be detected in microcosms supplemented with either pig manure slurry and/or E. faecalis CG110 (tet(M)) for the whole period (152 days). tet(M) could be detected longer than tetracycline-resistant enterococci could be isolated (limit of detection 100 CFU/g soil) probably due to viable but not culturable (VBNC) bacteria with tet(M), horizontal gene transfer of tet(M) to indigenous soil bacteria or presence of "free" DNA. The concentration of chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline were almost stable through out the experimental period, but the tetracycline concentrations had no effect on prevalence of tetracycline-resistant bacteria. The presented microcosm approach simulated natural farmland conditions well and supported results from previous field studies.     

Role of the fungal mycelium in the retention of radiocaesium in forest soils

The aim of this work was to study possible binding of 137Cs to various organic components in the soil and fungi, by using various sequential extraction procedures. The retention and binding of 137Cs has been studied in two horizons Of/Oh and Ah/B of a Ukrainian forest soil. The exchangeable fractions 137Cs from soil (sum of H2O and 1 M NH4OAc fraction) were found to be 12% in the organic-rich layer (range 11-14%) and 23% in the organic-poor (range 20-29%). The hydrolysis with 10% H2SO4 resulted in an additional release of 30% of 137Cs from the organic-rich soil (range 30-35%) and 38% from the organic-poor soil horizon (range 27-53%). Extraction with 30% H2O2 released 11 and 15% of the 137Cs activity from organic-rich and organic-poor soil horizons. The corresponding values for treatment with 98.8% NaOCl were about 27% in both types of soil. About 11% of the total 137Cs activity was found in the humic acid fraction, about 5% in the fulvic fraction and 46% in the residue fraction. Relatively high level of 137Cs activity in soil (ca. 50%) was thus still left unsolved in the residue fraction. About 29% of 137Cs activity concentration in fungal mycelia was found as water soluble with a range of 11 to 41%. Additionally 24% of the 137Cs activity from mycelia was released by 1 M ammonium acetate extraction. Together, water and 1 M ammonium acetate extraction released about 53% of the total 137Cs activity in the mycelia. In fruit bodies of mycorrhizal fungi, 68% of the total 137Cs inventory was found to be water soluble at room temperature and 93% at 80 degrees C.     

Long-term effects of single potassium fertilization on 137Cs levels in plants and fungi in a boreal forest ecosystem

We examined the long-term effects of a single application of potassium (K) fertilizer (100 kg K ha⁻¹) in 1992 on ¹³⁷Cs uptake in a forest ecosystem in central Sweden. ¹³⁷Cs activity concentrations were determined in three low-growing perennial shrubs, heather (Calluna vulgaris), lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) and bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), and in four wild fungal species (Cortinarius semisanguineus, Lactarius rufus, Rozites caperata and Suillus variegatus). Uptake of ¹³⁷Cs by plants and fungi growing on K-fertilized plots 17 years after application of the K fertilizer was significantly lower than in corresponding species growing in a non-fertilized control area. The ¹³⁷Cs activity concentration was 21-58% lower in fungal sporocarps and 40-61% lower in plants in the K-fertilized area compared with the control. Over the study period, this decrease in ¹³⁷Cs activity concentration was more consistent in plants than in fungi, although the effect was statistically significant and strongly pronounced in all species. The effect of K fertilization in reducing ¹³⁷Cs activity concentration in fungi and plants decreased over time but was still significant in 2009, 17 years after fertilization. This suggests that application of K fertilizer to forests is an appropriate and effective long-term measure to decrease radiocaesium accumulation in plants and fungi.     

Occupational exposure of phosphate mine workers: airborne radioactivity measurements and dose assessment

Under the Egyptian program for radiation safety and control, airborne radioactivity measurements and radiological dose assessment were conducted in some phosphate and uranium mines. Abu-Tartor mine is one of the biggest underground phosphate mines in Egypt. Airborne radioactivity, radon ((222)Rn) and its short-lived decay products (progenies) and thoron ((220)Rn), were measured in selected locations along the mine. The environmental gamma and workers dose equivalent rate (mSv/y) were measured inside and outside the mine using thermo-luminescence dosimeters (TLD). The results were presented and discussed. The calculated annual effective dose due to airborne radioactivity is the main source of occupational exposure and exceeding the maximum recommended level by ICRP-60 inside the mine tunnels. A number of recommendations are suggested to control the occupational exposures.     

Application of cattle manure as fertilizer in pastureland: estimating the incremental risk due to metal accumulation employing a multicompartment model

Specific-site data of metal concentration in cattle manure from NW Spain and a multicompartment fate and exposure model were used to evaluate metal fate and the main routes of exposure after a 100 year period of application of cattle manure as fertiliser in pastureland. Risk assessment was performed as a probabilistic analysis, and using a conservative worst-case exposure scenario. An accumulation model was used to predict the metal concentration in each environmental medium of concern. The incremental risk was estimated for the population inhabiting the surroundings of the area by a general multiexposure model. Monte Carlo simulations were performed to analyse uncertainty of the results. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis was carried out to identify the contribution to variance by the different metals and exposure routes. Among the five pathways evaluated, the ingestion of meat and milk from cattle grazing in the area represents the main contribution to total exposure. The results indicate that the incremental risk to human health for people living in the surroundings of pasturelands due to continuous application of cattle manure after a 100 year period are not negligible for the metals considered (Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn), posing a total Reasonable Maximum Exposure (RME) of 0.75, being the ingestion of meat the main exposure pathway.     

Residual Effect of Induced Water Stress and Nitrogen Addition on the Mycobiota in Scots Pine Stands

Mycobiota (fungi, lichens and myxomycetes) was examined in permanent plots following experiments of artificial drought (D) and nitrogen addition (N) and compared with untreated forest (C), in Scots pine stand planted on Arenosols. Species diversity and relationships between fungal community structure and environmental variables (plant species numbers and cover, bryophyte cover, soil and bark pH, tree mortality) were explored. Both D and N treatments lead to decrease of fungal species in general, however, responses of individual trophic and ecological groups varied. The strongest effect of the treatments was observed for soil fungi, especially mycorrhizal: numbers of fruiting species and ectomycorrhizal root tips decreased, and species composition has changed. Saprotrophic fungi reacted by changes in species composition but not in numbers. Of the studied environmental variables, the most significant effect on mycobiota had bryophyte and vascular plant cover as well as vascular plant species numbers.     

Accumulation of radionuclides from radioactive substrata by some micromycetes

Overgrowing (interaction) and dissolution of intact and milled hot particles by various micromycetes were studied under laboratory conditions. Hot particles used for the investigation originated from the Chernobyl accident release and atomic bomb testing sites. The micromycetes investigated were mitosporic fungi mainly isolated from the Chernobyl site and vicinity. Most of the fungal species and strains showed a tendency to grow towards the hot particle, overgrow it and dissolve it after prolonged contact. The accumulation (absorption and adsorption) of radionuclides from intact hot particles was generally more intensive for (152)Eu than for (137)Cs by a factor of about 2.6-134, while in experiments with milled samples the (152)Eu and (137)Cs accumulation was similar, except for some fungal species, which showed higher (152)Eu than (137)Cs sorption. It could be shown that the main factors influencing Cs and Eu accumulation in fungi are: fungal species and strains and the size and composition of the hot particle.     

从气溶胶微物理属性分析冬季重庆地区霾的垂直分布特征

采用2007~2011年冬季(12月~次年2月)CALIPSO星载激光雷达L1监测数据,通过分析532 nm总后向散射系数、体积退偏比和色比,对重庆地区冬季霾期间气溶胶光学和微物理特性的垂直分布进行了研究。结果表明:重庆地区冬季霾期间,大气散射能力随高度减弱,在0~1 km高度最强;各高度层气溶胶粒子规则性与粒径大小的分布情况与全年总体分布情况基本相同,但变化趋势单调性更强,0~1 km高度层规则的、大颗粒气溶胶所占比例最大,3~4 km高度不规则的、小颗粒气溶胶所占比例最大;年际变化上,气溶胶散射强度逐年增强,其中2008~2010年变化较小,2011年明显增强;各年均以规则的、小颗粒气溶胶为主,2011年不规则气溶胶所占比例最大,而大颗粒气溶胶所占比例逐年增大。     

Amoebae as sources of hypersensitivity pneumonitis

Pulmonary hypersensitivity has been associated with inhalation of many diverse occupational and environmental airborne agents. Of biological materials, spores of thermophilic actinomycetes have been recognized frequently as causative agents of the disease. Amoebae have rarely been associated with inhalation hypersensitivity. However, recent isolation of several species of amoebae from heated humidification systems in homes and factories has prompted concern for the role of amoebae in hypersensitivity pneumonitis. In this study, an animal model was employed to investigate hypersensitivity to nonpathogenic Naegleria gruberi. Guinea pigs were sensitized by injection of axenic as well as nonaxenic N. gruberi emulsified in Freund's complete adjuvant. Animals were evaluated for three distinguishing characteristics of hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Delayed-onset skin reactivity was apparent in all animals upon intradermal challenge with N. gruberi antigen. Test sites on animals sensitized with axenic N. gruberi developed extensive rashes lasting 96 h. Antibodies were detected in experimental animals. However, antibodies in animals sensitized with nonaxenic N. gruberi were directed mainly toward the bacteria Enterobacter aerogenes, which was used as the feeder culture. This finding points out the importance of using axenic cultures of amoebae. Bronchial provocation challenge was employed to investigate pulmonary hypersensitivity. Animals sensitized with axenic N. gruberi displayed delayed-onset respiratory responses beginning 6 h post challenge. The study indicates that attention should be given to nonpathogenic free living amoebae as causative agents of hypersensitivity pneumonitis.