FOCUSED AND DIFFUSE PATTERNS OF AQUATIC RECREATION BEHAVIOR1

ABSTRACT: Recreation behavior can be examined by identifying characteristics of participants, activities, and places. Two distinct houschold types (social groups) were examined relative to their participation in water based recreation: households whose participation occurs exclusively in water based recreation, and those reporting participation in both water and nonwater activities. These households were compared in terms of preference for and specialization in water recreation, the relationship of water activity selected and resource (place) preference and intensity of participation in water activities. Attention by managers, planners, and social scientists to the interplay of participant group, activity, and place upon behavioral outcomes is important to the future development of recreation opportunities. It is one thing to design a facility for water based recreation; it is another to design a facility knowing the behavioral outcomes occurring and how they will be affected. Similarly, to implement a management strategy without knowing how behavior of participants will be modified as a result of the strategy can lead to failure of the management objective.     

RIVER RECREATION EXPERIENCE OPPORTUNITIES IN TWO RECREATION OPPORTUNITY SPECTRUM (ROS) CLASSES1

The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) system is used by the USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management for inventorying, classifying, and managing wildlands for recreation. Different ROS classes from the Colorado and Arkansas Rivers in Colorado were compared, using visitor survey data collected in 1979 and 1981, to see if the different classes offered different recreational experience opportunities. No difference between classes was found. Six possible reasons for not finding a difference are discussed. The usefulness of ROS at the broader levels of planning and the needs at more detailed levels of planning are noted.     

A NET BENEFIT MODEL FOR RECREATION PLANNING AT DRINKING WATER RESERVOIRS1

A management model was developed for determining levels of recreation activities at public drinking water reservoirs. Quabbin Reservoir, located in central Massachusetts, served as a case study for the model. An interdisciplinary research team was formed to study the impact of selected recreation activities on water quality, public demand and willingness to pay for selected recreation activities, carrying capacity constraints, and the economic cost/benefits associated with increases in recreation at the Quabbin Reservation. Study variables were integrated into a quadratic programming model, producing the number of participants that corresponds to maximum net benefits for specific development packages on design days. The recreation mix associated with maximum net economic benefits was found to be cost-effective (assuming the use of reasonable entrance fees) and not deleterious to water quality. However, as a result of the findings of a related study, it was recommended that nutrients, particularly from wastewater, not be permitted to enter the reservoir, since the current phosphorous level may be at a critical point. Management techniques that would safeguard against this occurrence were recommended. The model was sensitive to management objectives; recommendations were limited to activities that would not lower the existing high quality of Quabbin water.     

ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF RIVER RECREATION ON LOCAL ECONOMIES1

ABSTRACT: Outdoor recreation is a major, growing use of water resources in the United States. The economic effects of expenditures by visitors to three recreational river sites on local economies surrounding the sites were estimated using an input-output model (IMPL.AN). Expenditure data were from the Public Area Recreation Visitors Study (PARVS). Results indicate that visitor spending stimulates a considerable amount of economic activity and growth in local economies. Economic effects include increases in total gross output ranging from $2.6 million to $13.4 million, increases in total income ranging from $1.2 million to $5.6 million, and increases in employment ranging from 60 to 292 jobs.     

COMPARING TWO MEASURES OF WATER BASED RECREATION PARTICIPATION1

ABSTRACT: Site specific studies of water based recreation participation are intended to describe use at a particular recreation area. Two common strategies employed in site specific studies are the on-site “entry” or “exit” survey and the off-site mailed questionnaire to known users of an area. Previous research has reported differences in psychological perceptions of a recreation engagement depending on whether a survey was administered during or after a trip. If such bias exists for behavioral reports, then managers and planners must be cautious in interpreting results of survey based use assessments for a particular site. Findings may be affected by the particular survey strategy employed. In this study, entry point and post-trip mailed questionnaire measures of water based recreation participation were compared for a sample of reservoir users. For most activities, a high degree of consistency in measures was found. Inconsistent reports were most likely to occur among participants in activities sharing significant common behaviors, such as power boating and water skiing. Inconsistency was also observed for those reporting very generalized behaviors, such as relaxing. In general, the use of either pre- or post-trip measures of water based recreation participation was supported.     

IMPACTS OF RECREATION ON RIPARIAN SOILS AND VEGETATION1

ABSTRACT: The seemingly magnetic attraction of water resources for recreation has direct implications for proximate land resources which are needed to provide access and support facilities. This paper reviews and synthesizes the literature dealing with the impacts of recreation use on riparian soils and vegetation. Part one of the paper sets forth the major negative impacts of recreation use on soils and vegetation. A seven-step soil impact cycle is identified, beginning with the scuffing away of leaf litter and other organic material and working through the soil erosion and sedimentation process. Four major kinds of impacts of recreation use on vegetation are then outlined, and the‘Vicious circle” relationship between impacts on soil and vegetation is demonstrated through a Soil/Vegetation Impact Diagram. Part two identifies several spatial and temporal patterns of environmental impact caused by recreation use. The node and linkage pattern of recreation use, campground and trail expansion, ground cover response and succession, rates of soil compaction, and resource response to various intensities of recreation use are important aspects. The final part of the paper deals with measuring environmental impacts caused by recreation use. Management implications of the research findings are considered throughout the paper.     

A BASIS FOR ASSESSING DIFFERENTIAL PARTICIPATION IN WATER-BASED RECREATION1

ABSTRACT: Participation in water-based recreation activities does not arise in random fashion nor simply as a result of having a water resource immediately available. Neither do individuals and groups engage in the same activities or a specific activity in the same way. The purpose of the present paper is to describe an alternative framework whereby differences among recreation users can be identified. Prior to this time, research directed toward understanding participation patterns at a recreational site have emphasized the activities while ignoring the human behavior factors which determine how participation arises. People consider recreation sites to be leisure settings in which the definition of such places has a broader socio-cultural meaning than that the site was designed. These definitions are reflected within the context of the social group and can be observed in the subsequent orientation to leisure and play. When activities are considered in the context of a human group, differences in participation patterns can be discovered.     

MEASURING THE SITE-SPECIFIC RECREATION BENEFITS RESULTING FROM IMPROVED WATER QUALITY: AN UPPER BOUND APPROACH1

The estimation of the value of recreation benefits resulting from improved water quality is required for many purposes. In particular, the Water Pollution Control Act of 1980 requires the consideration of the reasonableness of costs of reducing water pollution in relation to benefits to be derived from establishing effluent standards (Clean Water Act of 1977). Recreation is often the most important benefit resulting from water quality improvement. Current methods used to calculate recreation benefits are either not site-specific or are expensive and controversial. This paper presents a relatively simple, inexpensive, and less controversial method of calculating site-specific recreation benefits resulting from improved water quality. It does this by producing an upper bound estimate which often is adequate for the relevant decision. The upper bound estimates is based on two assumptions: 1) there are alternative equivalent substitute sites for the newly augmented water quality site, and 2) the new augmented recreation opportunities at the site will be used to their maximum supply capacity. Clearly, if an upper bound benefit estimate in a cost-benefit ratio does not produce a favorable ratio, no other benefit estimate will. In cases where this estimate produces an ambiguous result resort must be had to other more precise methods of estimation.     

THE CHUBB/BAUMAN METHOD FOR ESTIMATING THE RECREATION POTENTIAL OF RIVERS: A CRITICAL REVIEW1

ABSTRACT: The Chubb/Bauman (Ch/B) method for making quantitative estimates of recreation potential for rivers is based on the 1968/ 69 Leopold method for quantitative assessment of the scenic beauty of rivers. Both use classifications of environmental variables as the database. Unlike the Leopold method, the classifications used in the Ch/B method consistently reflect human preferences. The Ch/B method collects information on 67 variables, and uses a computer program to produce estimates of potential for 16 common recreation activities. This critique evaluates selected concepts and procedures of the Ch/B method partly by comparison with other available methods of recreation resource inventory. It considers the validity and utility of numerical weighting of variables, the use of numbers derived from place in a classification, and the transformation process. The quantitative techniques of the method exhibit serious flaws. Much of the data produced by the method appears to be quantitative but in fact is not, and it does not produce truly quantitative estimates of recreation potential. Classifications of generalized geographic or environmental variables are shown to have serious defects as a basis for evaluation of recreational potential.     

RECREATION AND THE OHIO RIVER1

ABSTRACT: The use of the Ohio River for recreational purposes is increasing. While documentation of the real-time use of the river for recreation is sparse, inferences are made from the availability of mooring facilities. The location of the facilities, the economic advantages of Ohio River recreation, and the hazards to such recreation coincide at the four major urban centers. Future use plans for the Ohio River must consider recreation among the multiple uses of this river.     

PREFERENCES FOR ALLOCATING RIVER RECREATION USE1

Allocating river recreation use to commercial and private sectors on white water rivers has been highly controversial. How this process is implemented may affect not only the availability of recreation opportunities to individual users, but may also negatively impact the user's desire to escape from the pressures and stresses of everyday life. In a study of users of Idaho's Middle Fork of the Salmon River, an Even-Pool allotment technique was preferred over others by the commercial, private, and rejectee individuals sampled. A lottery technique for rationing private use permits was preferred by private users and rejectees, while commercial users preferred Advance Reservation. No relationship was found between the users' stress release/escape expectations and their preferences for the different allotment and rationing techniques studies. Such results suggest that river managers may have considerable latitude in selecting allocation techniques that do not adversely affect on-site recreation experiences.     

LAKE AND RWER QUALITY FOR RECREATION MANAGEMENT AND CONTINGENT VALUATION1

ABSTRACT: Accurate valuation of recreational lakes and rivers in contingent valuation (CV) studies requires that the definition of the environmental good being sold meets the requirements of correspondence, proximity, and familiarity. The concept of ‘water quality’ normally used fails to meet these requirements. This paper offers a broader concept of “lake/river quality” - a collection of physical, ecological, and aesthetic characteristics that create the opportunity for recreation, scenic enjoyment, and fish and wildlife propagation - that better describes the characteristics that recreationists value in lakes and rivers. The concept therefore better meets CV requirements and should be the basis for defining environmental improvements and declines to be hypothetically sold in CV surveys.     

A METHODOLOGY FOR OUTDOOR RECREATION ANALYSIS IN A STATE WATER RESOURCES PLANNING STUDY1

ABSTRACT: The paper presents a methodology for outdoor recreation analysis in a comprehensive State water resources planning study. This methodology applies to determination of recreation participation desires among the population, allocation of those desires to areas of potential resources within which they must be satisfied, comparison of the areal potential resources against the allocated desires to identify areas having recreational resource deficits or needs, and exploration of alternative solutions to the identified needs. Major elements discussed are: market area, inflow-outflow, resource desire determination and projection, resource desire allocation, facility inventory, resource desire-resource analysis and alternative solutions to identified needs of water-oriented outdoor recreation.     

Recreation and river type: Social-environmental relationships

Recreation use was studied on a diverse state river system to test the hypothesis that recreation use patterns vary systematically by river type. River segments were classified into representative river types through application of a two-fold classification system. The first classification factor, generalized geomorphology, defines and groups the dominant resource bases of which rivers are comprised. The second classification factor, cultural setting, defines the land use and settlement patterns in which each river type is found. Significant differences were found among resulting river types with respect to the nature and intensity of recreation activity, desired use density, and user perceived problems and conflicts. Management recommendations were developed, based on study findings, for each river type. It is concluded that when both environmental attributes and cultural setting are taken into account, regularities appear with respect to the way in which river resources are used and perceived by recreationists. Further exploration and expansion of such recreation-resource relationships to other activities and environments may hold substantial implications for the allocation and management of outdoor recreation resources.     

WATER DEMAND AT WESTERN U.S. RECREATION DEVELOPMENTS1

Although the volume of potable water used at recreation developments is minor relative to total regional water use, very high quality is required and the source is often of limited capacity, such as a mountain spring or small local aquifer. Frequent confrontations between developers and regulatory agencies result from claims by developers that water demand will be very small while regulators tend to treat such developments the same as municipal residence. Almost no published data base exists for resolving such conflicts. Included here are: 1) Water use measurements of various peak period durations (seasonal, monthly, daily, and instantaneous) at several types of recreational developments in Utah and Wyoming (mountain cabins, both ski- and water-based condominiums, and recreation vehicle campgrounds), 2) statistical (frequency) analysis of the data and a comparison with municipal demands in the same region, and 3) analysis of occupancy rates at the various categories of developments.     

IDENTIFYING CRITICAL ISSUES IN RECREATION PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT: IMPROVING THE MANAGEMENT-RESEARCH PARTNERSHIP1

ABSTRACT: The “nominal group” process is a proven technique to systematically arrive at a consensus about critical information needs in recreation planning and management. Using this process, 41 managers who attended a 1983 conference on river management identified 114 specific information needs grouped under 11 general questions. Clearly, some concerns of administrators are researchable; many are not.     

WATER-ORIENTED RECREATION IN THE DISTRICT OF MUSKOKA,ONTARIO1

ABSTRACT: In Ontario no major studies have been attempted in the area of water-oriented recreation to guide planned development. To fill this gap a comprehensive investigation was undertaken on a group of lakes in the District of Muskoka, one of the premier tourist regions of the province. This paper presents the results of this study which focusses on the lake environment, recreational activities, attitudes, and perceptions of the cottagers.     

A Path Model of Whitewater Boating Satisfaction on the Cheat River of West Virginia

/ Recreation satisfaction is a complex psychological construct that is difficult to define and measure. Recent approaches suggest that overall satisfaction may be a function of multiple satisfactions derived from specific elements of a recreation experience such as the situational characteristics of a recreation setting or activity and the recreationist's subjective evaluations of the experience. In this paper, a path model of whitewater boating satisfaction was tested using data from a survey of 1210 commercial and 111 private boaters on the Cheat River of West Virginia. The pathmodel included the direct and mediating effects of situational variables and the subjective evaluations of boaters and explained 52% and 54% of the variation in satisfaction of commercial and private boaters, respectively. Factors related to the satisfaction of both groups included a composite variable representing opportunities for challenge, excitement, and skill testing on the river trip; water flow levels; and crowding perceptions. In combination, water flow level and boater's perceptions of opportunities to experience challenge, excitement, and test boating skills were the most important variables for explaining satisfaction of both groups. Additional factors affecting commercial, but not private, boater satisfaction included the motive of escaping the usual demands of life and a social interaction variable. Among private boaters, perceptions of the environmental conditions also contributed to overall satisfaction. The results support the multiple satisfaction approach of previous research. River management implications are discussed.KEY WORDS: Whitewater; River recreation; Satisfaction     

THE INFLUENCE OF DRAW-DOWN ON RECREATION ON THE TRENT CANAL RESERVOIR-LAKES1

ABSTRACT: Water-based outdoor recreation constitutes an important benefit in many multiple-use projects. One problem frequently encountered, however, is the fluctuation of the water-level in a reservoir, especially if draw-downs occur during the summer recreation season. The Trent Canal in Ontario, Canada, forms a unique recreation waterway of some 240 miles of canal and navigable lakes and rivers. For the control of the water in the canal, the Canadian Federal government manages 44 reservoir-lakes as water-storage sites to augment the flows in the canal. While most disputes in water allocation for recreation generally involve recreation uses versus other, non-recreation uses, in the case of the Trent Canal and its reservoir-lakes the dispute in water allocation exists between two competing recreation-uses: for recreation boating on the Canal and its waterway, and for recreation use of the reservoir-lakes. Each use has its own duty-of-water in terms of requirements, or water conditions, for its optimum use. On the reservoir-lakes, by far the largest recreation user-group, is made up of the owners of private shoreline summer cottages (cabins). Draw-downs on the reservoir-lakes, in some cases as much as 13 feet, hence constitute a negative externality imposed by the canal, especially since water-level lowering takes place continuously throughout the summer. In-depth interviews conducted with over 100 cottage-owners indicate four main conclusions. First, the previous user assumptions of the extent of the negative effect of water-level fluctuation on recreation had been exaggerated. Only in extreme draw-downs during infrequent dry years would draw-down constitute a serious imposition. Second, water-level fluctuation does constitute a form of inconvenience to the private riparian recreation property owners, but it does not generally reduce the quantity of recreation use of the reservoir-lakes. Third, there is evidence that reservoir-lake users have learned to adapt successfully to water-level draw-downs. Fourth, the shoreline physiography of the location of a riparian owner strongly influences the way in which draw-down affects attitudes and opinions. The complex jurisdictional split of the land and water resources of the region points to the need to establish a Trent Canal Authority, to oversee the proper use and development of the canal, its waterway, and the reservoir-lakes.     

RECREATION AT DRINKING WATER RESERVOIRS IN MASSACHUSETTS: A SURVEY OF WATER MANAGERS1

The purpose of this study was to identify attitudes toward the recreational use of drinking water reservoirs in Massachusetts among municipal water supply managers in the state. Compared to the findings of recent studies assessing the attitudes of the general public, water officials were found to advocate highly restrictive views. No officials said that recreation was an insignificant source of water supply pollution; however, opinions were not found to be related to respondents' exposure to the literature on the topic. The majority were not, in fact, familiar with the literature assessing the impact of recreation on water supply reservoirs.