中国环境保护事业60年

在总结建国初期及起步阶段环境问题及环保工作的基础上,本文分析了我国改革开放时期环境保护事业的发展与环境政策的形成:环境保护的战略地位不断提升,环境法律法规与管理制度不断完善,环境保护同环境破坏艰难博弈,环境外交与环境保护参与综合决策,落实科学发展观与建设生态文明。中国环境政策的特点是:充分运用命令-控制手段;努力筹集环境保护资金;明确保护环境的责任;鼓励"防治结合"和"综合利用";较早体现对外开放和国际合作。文章归纳了中国环境政策的演变过程,地位从基本国策到可持续发展战略,重点从偏重污染控制到污染控制与生态保护并重,方法从末端治理到源头控制,范围从点源治理到流域和区域的环境治理,手段从以行政命令为主导到以法律、经济手段为主导。指出发展低碳经济,建设生态文明是环境保护的出路和目标。     

“十二五”以来中国应对气候变化政策和行动评述

基于广泛系统的文献梳理和总结,凝练了“十二五”以来中国应对气候变化政策和行动的现状、特点及成效,并提出针对性建议。主要结论包括:从外部环境看,国际形势对中国应对气候变化事业的推动作用呈现递减态势,之前“以外促内”的国内气候治理特点逐步转化为“内生动力为主”和“内外协调”;从政策制定和执行模式看,“集思广益”“上书模式”持续,“上下互动”“智库支持”的政策学习特点更加明显;从政策体系上看,已经形成相对成熟的符合中国国情的完整体系,推动气候治理能力显著提高;从政策总体特点看,呈现规划主导并引领、行政手段先行市场机制跟进、由点到面有序扩展、环境与气候协同治理、中央和地方互动博弈形成动态平衡、短期内政策成本较高等特点。“十二五”至今,中国应对气候变化政策行动效果明显,提前实现了2020年应对气候变化目标,并在污染治理、经济发展等方面产生广泛协同效应。“十三五”中期以来,中国应对气候变化组织管理机构进行了重大调整,从中央到地方气候政策和行动进入调整阶段。同时,更加强调气候政策和环境政策的协同。展望未来,中国应对气候变化政策和行动应该尽快走出调整期,充分利用新体制的优势,以碳总量控制目标为抓手,坚定推动以全国碳排放权交易为中心、多措互补的政策体系,注重适应行动以应对不断放大的气候风险,继续提高公众对应对气候变化政策的认知度、接受度和参与度,并不断加强技术研发和储备。     

"十一五"期间环境保护和生态建设的思路、目标及对策

通过回顾“十五”期间环境和生态目标的完成情况．结合对“十一五”期闾我国经济增长特点及其对环境影响的分析。提出了“十一五”期间我国环境保护和生态建设的基本思路一强化对重点地区的“点上治理”．并据此确定了主要目标。同时建议采取以下对策：开展资源环境核算等以树立正确的政绩观：强化政策导向．通过产业政策和治理行动积极调整产业结构;大力发展循环经济．实现环境治理模式从末端治理向源头和全过程控制的转变;在污染末端治理中深化市场机制．建立“谁治理、谁受益”制度;完善法规和标准,加强环境管理能力建设;抓住重点流域水污染治理和改善自然保护区管理这两个重点目标;将生态建设和扶贫开发进一步结合起来。     

走向更为积极的气候变化政策与管理

我国目前应对气候变化的策略表现为：将气候变化政策视为可持续发展政策的一部分；在参与全球气候变化的国际协议方面有着鲜明立场；重视气候变化方面的科学研究；把气候变化问题作为环境外交的重要部分；努力吸引公众参与等方面。但在政策的制定和执行中仍缺乏应有的积极性、主动性和前瞳性。我国的气候变化治理结构存在的问题主要包括：缺乏明确的决策机构和执行机构。科学研究对政策制定的支持能力不足，公众参与薄弱．企业减缓气候变化的动力不足。针对这些问题．提出了以“走向更为积极的气候变化政策与管理”为核心的改进治理结构的政策建议。     

人工智能与企业污染减排：智能治理的环境效应

人工智能发展带来的“技术红利”为企业实现绿色治理提供了新的模式，提高了企业对生产经营过程中污染物排放的治理能力，形成了企业污染减排的新生动力源泉。对此，该研究结合中国工业企业污染排放数据库、中国工业企业数据库和国际机器人联合会的机器人数据库，系统分析人工智能发展对企业污染排放的影响。研究发现：人工智能发展显著降低了企业的污染排放；人工智能发展产生了“机器代人”的现象，发挥了智能减排的优势，进而对不同企业的污染排放带来了异质性的影响。机制检验表明，用工成本削减效应、绿色技术创新效应、管理效率提升效应是人工智能影响企业污染减排的具体机制，并从生产末端治理、生产前端控制、生产流程管理上实现企业减排。进一步，在考虑核心指标衡量方式、经济体量和发展政策、政策冲击影响和内生性问题等稳健性分析后，人工智能发展依然具有显著的污染减排作用，并促进了企业生产结构的优化。上述研究结论表明，人工智能为绿色产业和传统产业之间的技术交流提供了快速的通道，人工智能发展能够有效改善企业生产结构，促进绿色技术融入企业的生产流程中，极大降低了企业的污染排放，提高了企业对自然环境的友好程度，因此政府部门应聚焦人工智能发展领...     

三峡水库上游流域非点源颗粒态磷污染负荷研究

为有效控制三峡水库上游流域因水土流失产生的非点源颗粒态磷污染，改善库区水质，以美国通用土壤流失方程为基础，从影响土壤流失年际变化的水文条件和人类活动两个主导因素着手，并从地形指数的角度考虑泥沙输移比的空间分布，提出了能反映流域输沙量逐年动态变化的新估算方法。在此基础上，建立了流域颗粒态磷污染年负荷模型。在GIS辅助下，应用所建模型，对研究流域1990~2006年颗粒态磷污染负荷进行了空间分布模拟和定量研究。结果表明：所建年输沙量模型和颗粒态磷年负荷模型有良好的模拟精度；金沙江中下游流域，雅砻江中下游流域和岷江的大渡河流域是颗粒态磷污染的主要源区，嘉陵江流域通过治理水土流失和颗粒态磷流失情况明显好转；“长治”工程后，三峡水库上游流域的颗粒态磷年负荷总体上有下降趋势，近5年的年均负荷为16 482 t/a，比治理初期的1990年减少约37%。     

绿色金融改革创新试验区对臭氧污染的影响效应

建立绿色金融改革创新试验区是中国重要的绿色金融政策之一,也是实现大气污染物和温室气体协同减排目标的重要手段。为进一步研究绿色金融改革创新试验区对空气质量的改善作用,该研究选择近地面臭氧浓度为研究对象,利用2014—2019年中国215个城市面板数据,通过使用双重差分法和合成控制法实证分析绿色金融改革创新试验区对城市近地面臭氧污染的影响,探究外商直接投资和金融发展水平所发挥的调节作用,并运用事件研究法、安慰剂检验、替换被解释变量、控制其他环境政策和使用季度数据进一步开展稳健性检验。结果表明：(1)在样本期内,绿色金融改革创新试验区可以显著降低近地面臭氧污染。不同地理区域的绿色金融改革创新试验区对近地面臭氧污染的影响存在异质性。(2)在全国层面和东部地区的样本中,外商直接投资本身并不会直接造成显著的“污染天堂”效应,但外商直接投资的增长不利于绿色金融改革创新试验区对臭氧污染的治理,会间接造成“污染天堂”效应。在中西部地区,外商直接投资的增长有利于促进绿色金融改革创新试验区对臭氧污染的治理,间接带来“污染光环”效应。(3)在全国层面和东部地区的样本中,虽然金融发展水平本身对臭氧污染没有显著影...     

基于PM2.5的空气污染防治政策框架设计

中国PM_2.5污染防治进入新阶段：PM_2.5年均浓度从快速下降期进入缓慢下降和平稳期，全国超标现象大幅改善，但季节性和地域性超标与重污染问题仍然突出。以治理工程减排和可承受的产业和能源结构调整为核心的长期治理措施边际成本不断提升，而治理效率逐渐降低，尤其在重污染天气下难以发挥即时效益。中国仍处于经济和城市化发展的关键时期，将污染物整体排放量降低到重污染气象条件下的PM_2.5达标的允许排放量，在短期内不具技术可行性和成本有效性。公众健康与公共福利要求PM_2.5继续改善和稳定达标，只能在日常排放管理上寻求突破。而现行空气污染防治政策体系在日尺度达标管理和排放控制方面的约束力相对薄弱，地方缺少落实空气质量精细化治理的激励和实践指导。随大数据技术进展和信息化建设水平提高，科学治污、精准治污条件日趋完善，空气污染防治思路和政策框架亟须更新和转变，以适应新时期的空气污染防治需求。现阶段，推动空气污染防治由粗放式长期治理向精细化日常管理转型是改革的关键。以固定源管理为例，在现有制度的基础上，构建兼顾PM_...     

构筑我国绿色贸易体系的对策研究

环境与贸易紧密联系相互影响。我国现行的贸易体系不仅使贸易不可持续．而且给资源环境带来了很大压力。要实现优化贸易增长和缓解资源环境压力的“双赢”目标，需要构筑绿色贸易体系。绿色贸易体系是指通过一定的环境管理政策手段来绿化或优化贸易结构、调控贸易总量、提高贸易的环境效率。最终能够减少并扭转我国贸易的资源环境逆差和促进绿色贸易发展的政策体系。绿色贸易体系的政策框架包括：从具体政策措施看．包括加征产品出口的资源环境关税、制定基于环保目的的市场准入与准出制度,设计投资的资源环境导向等环保“阀门”和手段；从政策的作用点看．包括从产品、企业、行业三个层面着手；从政策的管理看，依据环境影响的程度。对产品、企业和行业分别进行鼓励、许可、限制和禁止贸易的分类管理。     

国际规范、环境合作与建设绿色“一带一路”倡议

国际合作项目需符合绿色发展原则已经成为重要的国际规范。当前,“一带一路”倡议正在进一步推进,在这一过程中倡议如何能够遵循绿色规范,并引领全球绿色发展成为重要的研究问题。推进绿色“一带一路”倡议具有多重深远的战略意义：第一,绿色“一带一路”倡议建设有助于规避国际合作风险,绿色化因此具有基础性功能,必须深入推进。第二,从国际环境合作角度来看,绿色“一带一路”倡议有助于形成国内外统一的生态文明基调,并以绿色理念推动经济的低碳转型,是国内国际双循环的重要内容。第三,从外交实践角度,它是中国参与全球生态环境治理,构建人类命运共同体的重要领域,有助于树立中国的国际形象。在目前的制度建设下,绿色规范为“一带一路”倡议的治理机制设定了方针路线,试图将生态环境因素融入“一带一路”建设的全过程。通过借鉴中国本土绿色发展经验,以共建、自愿为特点的机制设计提升全球生态环境治理的有效性。目前框架内合作采取软性、灵活的方式,取得了初步合作成效。从推进路径上看,绿色“一带一路”的建设应以有效的制度建构为基础,推动市场化手段,进而形成更为有效的国际环境合作框架。     

Ethnosciences––A step towards the integration of scientific and indigenous forms of knowledge in the management of natural resources for the future

Integration of indigenous knowledge and ethnoscientific approaches into contemporary frameworks for conservation and sustainable management of natural resources will become increasingly important in policies on an international and national level, both in countries that are industrialised and those that have a developing status. We set the scene on how this can be done by exploring the key conditions and dimensions of a dialogue between ȁ8ontologiesȁ9 and the roles, which ethnosciences could play in this process. First, the roles of ethnosciences in the context of sustainable development were analysed, placing emphasis on the implications arising when western sciences aspire to relate to indigenous forms of␣knowledge. Secondly, the contributions of ethnosciences to such an ȁ8inter- ontological dialogueȁ9 were explored, based on an ethnoecological study of the encounter of sciences and indigenous knowledge in the Andes of Bolivia, and reviewed experiences from mangrove systems in Kenya, India and Sri Lanka, and from case-studies in other ecosystems world-wide, incl. Australia, Burkina Faso, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Indonesia, Nepal, Niger, Philippines, Senegal, South-Africa and Tanzania.     

Paradoxical ozone associations could be due to methyl nitrite from combustion of methyl ethers or esters in engine fuels

We review studies of the effects of low ambient ozone concentrations on morbidity that found a negative coefficient for ozone concentration. We call this a Paradoxical Ozone Association (POA). All studies were in regions with methyl ether in gasoline. All but one study carefully controlled for the effects of other criterion pollutants, so the phenomenon cannot be attributed to them. One was in southern California in mid-summer when ozone levels are highest. Because ozone is created by sunlight, the most plausible explanation for a POA would be an ambient pollutant that is rapidly destroyed by sunlight, such as methyl nitrite (MN). A previously published model of engine exhaust chemistry suggested methyl ether in the fuel will create MN in the exhaust. MN is known to be highly toxic, and closely related alkyl nitrites are known to induce respiratory sensitivity in humans. Support for the interpretation comes from many studies, including three linking asthma symptoms to methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) and the observation that a POA has not been seen in regions without ether in gasoline. We also note that studies in southern California show a historical trend from more significant to less significant ozone-health associations. The timing of those changes is consistent with the known timing of the introduction of gasoline oxygenated with MTBE in that region.     

Distributions of personal VOC exposures: a population-based analysis

Information regarding the distribution of volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations and exposures is scarce, and there have been few, if any, studies using population-based samples from which representative estimates can be derived. This study characterizes distributions of personal exposures to ten different VOCs in the U.S. measured in the 1999-2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Personal VOC exposures were collected for 669 individuals over 2-3 days, and measurements were weighted to derive national-level statistics. Four common exposure sources were identified using factor analyses: gasoline vapor and vehicle exhaust, methyl tert-butyl ether (MBTE) as a gasoline additive, tap water disinfection products, and household cleaning products. Benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, xylenes chloroform, and tetrachloroethene were fit to log-normal distributions with reasonably good agreement to observations. 1,4-Dichlorobenzene and trichloroethene were fit to Pareto distributions, and MTBE to Weibull distribution, but agreement was poor. However, distributions that attempt to match all of the VOC exposure data can lead to incorrect conclusions regarding the level and frequency of the higher exposures. Maximum Gumbel distributions gave generally good fits to extrema, however, they could not fully represent the highest exposures of the NHANES measurements. The analysis suggests that complete models for the distribution of VOC exposures require an approach that combines standard and extreme value distributions, and that carefully identifies outliers. This is the first study to provide national-level and representative statistics regarding the VOC exposures, and its results have important implications for risk assessment and probabilistic analyses.     

Long-term increase in climatic dryness in the East-Mediterranean as evidenced for the island of Samos

The Eastern Mediterranean region is among the regions which were predicted to become drier under IPCC climate scenarios. Here, we document a gradual reduction of rainfall and tree growth and the loss of rural springs during the last decades of the twentieth century. Years with severe drought are associated with very low tree growth (dendrochronology) and dry falling of springs as evidenced by interviews with local stakeholders. The paper discusses the consequences of accelerating drought on natural vegetation and agriculture and points at the interaction with fire dynamics and economy, both likely to enhance the drought effect.     

Comparative analysis of the effect of predator odor on morphological and physiological parameters of adult male Campbell hamsters (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phodopus campbelli</Emphasis>) and dwarf hamsters (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phodopus sungorus</Emphasis>)

The effect of long-term exposure to natural excretions of the European polecat on the morphological parameters and hormonal status of adult male Campbell hamsters (Phodopus campbelli) and dwarf hamsters (Ph. sungorus) was studied. Exposure to volatile components of natural excreta of a potential predator did not have any significant effect on hamsters. The combined influence of volatile and nonvolatile components of the polecat’s excretions caused physiological stress in Ph. campbelli, while in Ph. sungorus, on the contrary, an increase in thymus weight and the plasma testosterone level was recorded.     

How Do Groups Solve Local Commons Dilemmas? Lessons from Experimental Economics in the Field

The use of experimental settings to observe human behaviour in a controlled environment of incentives, rules and institutions, has been widely used by the behavioural sciences for sometime now, particularly by psychology and economics. In most cases the subjects are college students recruited for one to two hour decision making exercises in which, depending on their choices, they earn cash averaging US$ 20. In such exercises players face a set of feasible actions, rules and incentives (payoffs) involving different forms of social exchange with other people, and that in most cases involve some kind of externalities with incomplete contracts, such as in the case of common-pool resources situations. Depending on the ecological and institutional settings, the resource users face a set of feasible levels of extraction, a set of rules regarding the control or monitoring of individual use, and sometimes ways of imposing material or non-material costs or rewards to those breaking or following the rules. We brought the experimental lab to the field and invited about two hundred users of natural resources in three Colombian rural villages to participate in such decision making exercises and through these and other research instruments we learned about the ways they solve - or fail to - tragedies of the commons with different social institutions. Further, bringing the lab to the field allowed us to explore some of the limitations of existing models about human behaviour and its consequences for designing policies for conserving ecosystems and improving social welfare.     

Quantifying the transfer of radionuclides to food products from domestic farm animals

Databases have been compiled to derive parameter values relevant to the transfer of radionuclides from feedstuffs to domestic animal products to provide a revision to the IAEA Handbook on transfer parameters TRS 364. Significant new data inputs have been incorporated into the databases from an extensive review of Russian language information and inclusion of data published since the early 1990s. Fractional gastrointestinal absorption in adult ruminants presented in the revised handbook are generally similar to those recommended for adult humans by the ICRP. Transfer coefficient values are presented in the handbook for a range of radionuclides to farm animal products. For most animal products, transfer coefficient values for elements additional to those in TRS 364 are provided although many data gaps remain. Transfer coefficients generally vary between species with larger species having lower values than smaller species. It has been suggested that the difference is partly due to the inclusion of dietary dry matter intake in the estimation of transfer coefficient and that whilst dietary intake increases with size nutrient concentrations do not. An alternative approach to quantifying transfer by using concentration ratios (CR), which do not consider dietary intake, has been evaluated. CR values compiled for the handbook vary considerably less between species than transfer coefficient values. The advantage of the CR approach is that values derived for one species could be applied to species for which there are no data. However, transfer coefficients will continue to be used as few studies currently report CR values or give data from which they can be estimated.     

A Dynamic model of Cs accumulation by fish of different age classes

A dynamic model of radionuclide accumulation in fish is developed. In the model, the fish population is represented by a set of discrete age classes. Each age class is characterized by a specific growth rate, diet and activity of metabolic processes. The model describes all known types of size effect in the contamination of fish with radiocaesium. The detailed dynamics of ¹³⁷Cs accumulation by fish are demonstrated using the results of the model's application to ichtiofauna in a water body which has a high level of contamination with radiocaesium — namely, the cooling pond of the Chernobyl NPP.     

Greenwashed sports and environmental activism: Formula 1 and FIFA†

ABSTRACT

Formula 1 motor sport and the Men's World Cup of association football, two major sporting events on our calendars, are indirectly and directly responsible for environmental despoliation. They serve as advertisements for heavy industry, are designed for elite as much as mass consumption, and provide sponsors with dubious social licenses to operate. This occurs through the very mechanisms of the events themselves (engines in Formula 1, tourism in the World Cup) as well as their promotional externalities. I look at greenwashing claims made about these two sporting events and examine counter-discourses, then investigate economic and ecological citizenship. I suggest that a progressive agenda can be forwarded if Greenpeace, which runs campaigns related to these sports, works with its fellow elites, in the case of Formula 1, and with fans in the case of football. Doing so may be more effective than business-as-usual direct action.     

江苏海洋开发的资源环境条件评述

江苏海洋的区位优越，海域广阔，环境条件总体有利，海洋资源种类多，数量大，具有综合开发功能，而且资源和环境的区域组合良好，有利于海洋产业的集约经营和协调发展，但也存在不少限制因素，如深水区离岸较远，海底矿产勘探程度低，自然灾害较多等。应根据实际情况确定本省海洋的开发战略。