Economic responses to the closure of small-scale coal mines in Chongqing,China

In 1998, China launched a programme to close tens of thousands of small-scale coal mines within just three years. Few measures were put in place to mitigate the negative impacts. This paper reports on a study in the Chongqing Municipality of south-west China, with the aims of identifying the economic impacts of the mine closure campaign and examining what factors permitted some localities to respond more successfully to the resulting economic challenges. Those areas with greater wealth and more diversified economies were able to absorb the shock of mine closure more effectively than poorer areas and those with less diversified economies. These latter groups either failed to respond to mine closure or reacted by increasing output from the remaining mines. In the successful cases, though the economy of the area as a whole was able to withstand the impact of the mine closure campaign, no evidence was found of any attempts to assist those in the local communities directly affected by mine closure.     

Transforming China's coal mines: A case history of the Shuangliu Mine

China is the largest coal producer and the largest coal consuming country in the world. Approximately half of China's coal comes from small‐scale mines. The sustainability of China's coal industry would be improved if a greater share of the coal come from larger‐scale mines. This article presents a case history of the Shuangliu Mine in Shanxi Province and discusses the issues and benefits of the transformation of this mine. Significant gains were observed in worker safety and benefits, and in more efficient exploitation of the coal resource. Problems included loss of employment opportunities for local labourers, and reduced revenue for local townships. The wider implications of a shift of China's coal supply from small‐scale to large‐scale mining operations are discussed in relation to economic, social and environmental aspects.     

Economic analysis of reform policies for small coal mines in China

Over the last three decades, China’s coal industry has achieved dramatic increases in coal production, both in absolute terms and relative to the world as a whole. This achievement is due largely to its coal policies. Yet facing increasing pressures of environmental sustainability and market transition, the Chinese government was forced to make deep reforms and adjustments to regulate the coal industry effectively. This paper presents an historical overview of China’s coal economic policies, paying particular attention to the current reform policy of closing mines and restricting the yield for the small coal mines (SCMs) in the context of economic theories and methods. We argue that the SCM closure policy would not likely be efficiently enforced if a feasible market mechanism were not built up. The failure of closure policy is due largely to problems of property rights, coal pricing, ownership, and objectives.     

China's small coal mine policy in the 2000s: A case study of trusteeship and consolidation

China has been trying to improve the safety and environmental performances of small coal mines (SCMs) in 2000s through measures of trusteeship and consolidation. The question whether such policy and practice can sustain small scale mining is interesting academically and important practically for China and the world. This paper finds that the Chinese SCM policy has been switched from encouragement to restriction for legal SCMs and from privatization to nationalization in some provinces in the past 10 years. Legal SCMs face pressure to be expanded continuously and to be absorbed or consolidated by large coal mines, which often are state owned. Unexpectedly, financial resources may not be a big constraint nowadays due to availability of private equity investment resources. The paper argues that both the trusteeship and consolidation approaches may only be able to sustain SCMs in the short run. A more sustainable measure is to establish a stable, transparent and inclusive legal and fiscal framework. This paper concludes that those trusteeship approaches may be applicable to restructuring small scale mines in other countries; however, the consolidation practice in China's is unique and thus may not be applicable to others.     

Small-scale mining in China: Assessing recent advances in the policy and regulatory framework

This paper explores the background of a proposed revision to the Mineral Resources Law of China, why and how the law was amended in the past, its salient features and objectives. Of equal importance is an analysis of how this national law, with its attendant regulations and policies, formed the basis for the growth and continued development of China's small-scale mining industry. The Xiaoqingling Gold Mountain case study is shown to justify the necessity and feasibility for formalizing and consolidating small-scale mines in China, and to some extent, the success of the nation-wide ASM resource consolidation policy at a local level.     

An institutional framework for analysis of voluntary policy: the case of voluntary environmental agreements in Kita Kyushu,Japan

This paper seeks to understand the effect of social, economic and political conditions on the selection and effectiveness of voluntary policy in Japan. Borrowing from two sets of literature, the paper develops a two-dimensional framework for analysis of voluntary policy that helps clarify the contextual factors that determine voluntary policy choice and effectiveness. The establishment of voluntary agreements in Japan are then investigated and the specific experiences of one Japanese city's experience, Kita Kyushu. Findings show that insufficient national and local statutory regulations, local citizen pressure resulting from significant pollution problems, city-controlled non-regulatory resources, and local level regulatory power determined Kita Kyushu's policy choice and the resulting effectiveness of voluntary environmental agreements. Findings then indicate where the Japanese experience falls within the framework. The usefulness of the framework for analysis and practice is then reinforced, and challenges for some of the basic assumptions of current theory are suggested.     

A new and integrated hydro-economic accounting and analytical framework for water resources: a case study for North China

Water is a critical issue in China for a variety of reasons. China is poor of water resources with 2300m(3) of per capita availability, which is less than 13 of the world average. This is exacerbated by regional differences; e.g. North China's water availability is only about 271m(3) of per capita value, which is only 125 of the world's average. Furthermore, pollution contributes to water scarcity and is a major source for diseases, particularly for the poor. The Ministry of Hydrology [1997. China's Regional Water Bullets. Water Resource and Hydro-power Publishing House, Beijing, China] reports that about 65-80% of rivers in North China no longer support any economic activities. Previous studies have emphasized the amount of water withdrawn but rarely take water quality into consideration. The quality of the return flows usually changes; the water quality being lower than the water flows that entered the production process initially. It is especially important to measure the impacts of wastewater to the hydro-ecosystem. Thus, water consumption should not only account for the amount of water inputs but also the amount of water contaminated in the hydro-ecosystem by the discharged wastewater. In this paper we present a new accounting and analytical approach based on economic input-output modelling combined with a mass balanced hydrological model that links interactions in the economic system with interactions in the hydrological system. We thus follow the tradition of integrated economic-ecologic input-output modelling. Our hydro-economic accounting framework and analysis tool allows tracking water consumption on the input side, water pollution leaving the economic system and water flows passing through the hydrological system thus enabling us to deal with water resources of different qualities. Following this method, the results illustrate that North China requires 96% of its annual available water, including both water inputs for the economy and contaminated water that is ineligible for any uses.     

Reduction and utilization of coal mine waste rock in China: A case study in Tiefa coalfield

In China, coal mine waste rock (CMWR) produced during coal mining and processing is still increasing significantly as a result of coal production which has huge environmental impact. CMWR reduction and utilization is a major issue for coal enterprises and government to reduce the surface footprint and the public environmental impact. Tiefa coalfield, an old coalfield with 60 years of coal exploitation, was selected as a case to study the methods to minimize the environmental impacts of CMWR piles in a short period. We argue that a systematic design on CMWR utilization is needed on the basis of a usage evaluation which takes consideration of CMWR source, compositions, and proximate analysis. Mine design is crucial and the base for reducing the CMWR generation at the headstream. Placing roadway into coal seam rather than rock, panel optimization, and parametric analysis for mining technique were conducted in Tiefa coalfield. A promising technology of CMWR backfill under the ground was employed with a resultant increase of coal recovery rate. The surface CMWR recycling depends on brick making, electricity generating, and rehabilitation of subsided land. The practice of the presented methods indicates that the CMWR piles on Tiefa coalfield may disappear in 3 years, which could significantly reduce the environmental impacts of CMWR dumps. The technologies conducted in Tiefa coalfield developed a model of CMWR reduction and utilization for Chinese coal mines.     

Using coal for transportation in China: Life cycle GHG of coal-based fuel and electric vehicle,and policy implications

This paper compares the GHG emissions of coal-to-liquid (CTL) fuels to the GHG emissions of electric vehicles (EVs) powered with coal-to-electricity in China. A life cycle model is used to account for full fuel cycle and use-phase emissions, as well as vehicle cycle and battery manufacturing emissions. It is found that the reduction of life cycle GHG emissions of EVs charged by electricity generated from coal, without utilizing carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology can be 3–36% when compared to petroleum-based gasoline car. The large range in emissions reduction potential is driven by the many different power generation technologies that are and could in the future be used to generate electricity in China. When CCS is employed in power plants, the GHG emission reductions increase to 60–70% compared to petroleum-based gasoline car. However, the use of coal to produce liquid transportation fuels (CTL fuels) will likely lead to significantly increased life cycle GHG emissions, potentially 30–140% higher than petroleum-based gasoline. When CCS is utilized in the CTL plant, the CTL fueled vehicles emit roughly equal GHG emissions to petroleum-based gasoline vehicles from the life cycle perspective. The authors conclude that policies are therefore needed in China in order to accelerate battery technology and infrastructural improvements for EV charging, increased energy efficiency management, and deployment of low-carbon technologies such as CCS.     

Applying a TQM framework to the public policy process: Part I—the framework

In Part I of this article, a TQM framework is described that can be used to analyze as well as manage the public policy process. Key elements of the framework include leadership, issues analysis, goal and policy development, strategic vehicles, implementation, indicators and outcomes, and stakeholder review. The framework can be used to analyze public policy cycles, predict future issues and outcomes, and develop more sustainable approaches to manage linked economic, environmental, and societal issues. In Part II, the framework is used to examine the effectiveness of management of environmental issues in the Great Lakes region over the past three decades and to demonstrate the need for a more integrated approach to regional management.     

Off-road vehicle recreation management policy for public lands in the United States: A case history

Three annual motorcycle races on the Johnson Valley-Parker course in California's Mojave Desert have resulted in conspicuous modifications of soil and vegetation in a Wilderness Study Area (WSA) and in other lands of high resource values. The extent of damage caused by the races, which have involved fewer than 400 participants, exceeded the expectations of the managing agency by 360%–640% and the allowable limits imposed by the agency by 40%–76%. After three races, no resource monitoring results have been obtained by which compliance with the regulations for interim management of the Wilderness Study Area may be judged. Designation of the remaining parts of the course on lands of high resource value was based on criteria subsequently determined by a federal court to be in violation of regulations derived from two Executive Orders.     

Linking climate policy across economic sectors: A case for green growth in Nepal

While the energy sector is the largest global contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the agriculture, forestry, and other land use (AFOLU) sector account for up to 80% of GHG emissions in the least developed countries (LDCs). Despite this, the nationally determined contributions (NDCs) of LDCs, including Nepal, focus primarily on climate mitigation in the energy sector. This paper introduces green growth—a way to foster economic growth while ensuring access to resources and environmental services—as an approach to improving climate policy coherence across sectors. Using Nepal as a case country, this study models the anticipated changes in resource use and GHG emissions between 2015 and 2030, that would result from implementing climate mitigation actions in Nepal's NDC. The model uses four different scenarios. They link NDC and policies across economic sectors and offer policy insights regarding (1) energy losses that could cost up to 10% of gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030, (2) protection of forest resources by reducing the use of biomass fuels from 465 million gigajoules (GJ) in 2015 to 195 million GJ in 2030, and (3) a significant reduction in GHG emissions by 2030 relative to the business-as-usual (BAU) case by greater use of electricity from hydropower rather than biomass. These policy insights are significant for Nepal and other LDCs as they seek an energy transition towards using more renewable energy and electricity.     

A framework for assessing the impact of land use policy on community exposure to air toxics

Our research focuses on the linkage between land use planning policy and the spatial pattern of exposure to air toxics emissions. Our objective is to develop a modeling framework for assessment of the community health risk implications of land use policy. The modeling framework is not intended to be a regulatory tool for small-scale land use decisions, but a long-range planning tool to assess the community health risk implications of alternative land use scenarios at a regional or subregional scale. This paper describes the development and application of an air toxic source model for generating aggregate emission factors for industrial and commercial zoning districts as a function of permitted uses. To address the uncertainty of estimating air toxics emission rates for planned general land use or zoning districts, the source model uses an emissions probability mass function that weights each incremental permitted land use activity by the likelihood of occurrence. We thus reduce the uncertainty involved in planning for development with no prior knowledge of the specific industries that may locate within the land use district. These air toxics emission factors can then be used to estimate pollutant atmospheric mass flux from land use zoning districts, which can then be input to air dispersion and human health risk assessment models to simulate the spatial pattern of air toxics exposure risk. The model database was constructed using the California Air Toxics Inventory, 1997 US Economic Census, and land assessment records from several California counties. The database contains information on more than 200 air toxics at the 2-digit Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) level. We present a case study to illustrate application of the model. LUAIRTOX, the interactive spreadsheet model that applies our methodology to the California data, is available at http://www2.bren.ucsb.edu/~mwillis/LUAIRTOX.htm.     

The discursive framework of sustainability in UK food policy: the marginalised environmental dimension

ABSTRACT

In the context of food policy, sustainability functions as a normative principle but also constitutes a highly contested arena. The study presented in this paper establishes how discursive dynamics amongst professionals involved in matters of food distribution, retail, consumption and waste lead to food policy themes being framed as issues of sustainability. Analysing varied UK-based data (trade magazine articles, policy documents and interviews with retail, non-profit and consultancy representatives), three interpretative frames of sustainability are identified: consumer sovereignty, economic rationality and stewardship. Focusing on three themes of food sustainability – organic consumption, protein diversity and waste reduction – it is shown how these interpretative frames constitute the discursive framework relevant to food policy. Based on these findings, it is shown how in the analysed debates environmental concerns are sidelined.     

Potential conflict between the coal and arable land resources in australia: A case for corporate responsiveness

Background information on possible surface-coal-mining operations in arable agricultural areas in Australia is provided. The major co-occurrence of the coal and arable land resources was in the Darling Downs region of Queensland and the Liverpool Plains region of New South Wales; however, coal development will probably only occur in the former region over the next decade. Analysis of the situation in the Darling Downs region, which consists of 11 Shires, found five companies conducting prefeasibility projects for surface-coal development and the size of exploration areas concerned far exceeding final mined-land disturbance estimates. Most of the land included in the prefeasibility studies was classified as arable with moderate crop restrictions requiring intensive management (classes II–IV). The total area of land that may be disturbed at some time in the future was less than 2% of the arable land in the Shires concerned. Project mutual exclusivity and ongoing rehabilitation of disturbed areas further reduce arable land out of production at any one time. It is suggested that, if self-regulation by the coal industry in Australia on rehabilitation issues is to remain a viable option in these areas, an understanding between the corporate and public sectors on the extent and limitations of its responsibilities must be obtained. The current development of a National Conservation Strategy for Australia should assist this to proceed. Research on various rehabilitation issues may be required prior to project commitment to ensure the responsibilities identified are realizable. Integrative problem-solving, incorporating audit procedures, was suggested as a suitable method to achieve these aims and corporate responsiveness was seen as a necessary first step.     

Sustainability indicator system and policy processes in Malaysia: a framework for utilisation and learning

Formulation of effective sustainability indicators for national assessment demands a comprehensive understanding of the utilisation, diffusion and dissemination of information in policy processes. To illustrate the dynamic of sustainability assessment within the context of policy processes, this paper uses a case study of national sustainability indicators development in Malaysia. Subsequently, this paper ascribes the limited achievement of national sustainability assessment in Malaysia to four types of constraints: meta-policy issues; technical capacities; communication concerns; and the inherent knowledge gaps within the indicator developer community vis-a-vis their theoretical limitations. It is proposed that such constraints will be encountered in many countries. Drawing from the literature on public policy, this paper outlines a framework for investigating indicator behaviour within policy processes based on well-established concepts such as knowledge utilisation and policy learning. I conclude this paper by elaborating on the corresponding future challenges that must be addressed before effective integration of sustainability indicators within policy systems can occur.     

Decision framework for evaluating the macroeconomic risks and policy impacts of cyber attacks

Increased reliance on the Internet for critical infrastructure and the global nature of supply chains provides an opportunity for adversaries to leverage dependencies and gain access to vital infrastructure. Traditional approaches to assessing risk in the cyber domain, including estimation of impacts, fall short due to uncertainty in how interconnected systems react to cyber attack. This paper describes a method to represent the pathways of disruption propagation, evaluate the macroeconomic impact of cyber threats and aid in selecting among various cybersecurity policies. Based on state of the art agent-based modeling, multicriteria decision analysis, and macroeconomic modeling tools, this framework provides dynamic macroeconomic, demographic and fiscal insights regarding shocks caused by cyber attacks to the regional economy over time. The interlinkage of these models will provide a robust and adaptive system that allows policy makers to evaluate complex issues such as cybersecurity threats and their impacts on the geopolitical, social, environmental, and macroeconomic landscape.     

Effectiveness of the policy of circular economy in China: A DEA-based analysis for the period of 11th five-year-plan

As a policy instrument for sustainable development, nationwide circular economy (CE) mode has been implemented for 7 years by the Chinese government, to overcome the dilemma among economic depression, energy shortage and environmental pollution. Unfortunately, few literatures contribute to checking the efficiency of regional CE and exploring the potential reasons in China, which will be practically helpful in guiding China's future development and providing reference for other developing countries that will adopt CE mode. Therefore, this paper puts forward the method of super-efficiency DEA window analysis to dynamically evaluate CE efficiency of 30 regions in China covering the period of 2005–2010. In line with the features of CE, the specific efficiency of three sub-systems, namely resource saving and pollutant reducing (RSPR) sub-system, waste reusing and resource recycling (WRRR) sub-system and pollution controlling and waste disposing (PCWD) sub-system, was assessed and compared regarding time series trend and spatial distribution, based on which, the comprehensive CE efficiency was totally ranked. The results show that, on the one hand, during the period of 2005–2010, Chinese CE efficiency slightly increased, implying a significant policy effect of CE; on the other hand, the efficiency of different sub-systems varies, with RSPR sub-system the lowest, and WRRR and PCWD sub-systems relatively higher. In terms of regional distribution, the efficiency of RSPR sub-system in the east area dominates during the whole period. However, for the other two sub-systems, from 2005 to 2007, the efficiency scores of the east fluctuate, then after 2007, the east area became more efficient than the central and the west areas. Throughout the study period, the RSPR sub-system in the central area stably maintains low efficiency, and so does the WRRR sub-system in the west area. The difference in regional efficiency of three sub-systems reflects the difficulty of carrying out CE policy in China comprehensively, which means that, promoting the adaptability of regional policy for local government and enhancing the coordination among various policies for China's central government are the key concerns for realizing sustainable development.     

Technology,managerial, and policy initiatives for improving environmental performance in small-scale gold mining industry

This paper reviews a series of strategies for improving environmental performance in the small-scale gold mining industry. Although conditions vary regionally, few regulations and policies exist specifically for small-scale gold mining activity. Furthermore, because environmental awareness is low in most developing countries, sites typically feature rudimentary technologies and poor management practices. A combination of policy-, managerial- and technology-related initiatives is needed to facilitate environmental improvement in the industry. Following a broad overview of these initiatives, a recommended strategy is put forth for governments keen on improving the environmental conditions of resident small-scale gold mines.