Toxicity of building materials: a key issue in sustainable construction

To avoid the use of toxic building materials is one of the principles of sustainable construction. However and contrary to general beliefs, current residential buildings frequently contain many toxic building materials, some of which even comply with legal regulations. Part of the problem is because architects and civil engineers have no form of knowing the toxicity of building materials. The other part is economically related. Some regulations about toxicity limits are influenced by economic reasons. For instance, although scientific evidence about the toxicity of lead plumbing has existed for quite some time, legal regulations avoid imposing very tight thresholds because of the cost of lead pipe substitution (in Europe that could cost almost 200,000 million euros). It is then no surprise to see that the related Directive (98/83/CE) established a 15-year delay period before the 10 μg/l lead content threshold is enforced. This paper discusses some cases of toxic building materials by reviewing previously published work, it also covers the emission of volatile organic compounds from paints and varnishes, the toxicity of impregnating agents, materials that release toxic fumes during a fire, asbestos-based materials, radioactive materials and lead plumbing.     

Setting up the criteria and credit-awarding scheme for building interior material selection to achieve better indoor air quality

Methods, standards, and regulations that are aimed to reduce indoor air pollution from building materials are critically reviewed. These are classified as content control and emission control. Methods and standards can be found in both of these two classes. In the regulation domain, only content control is enforced in some countries and some regions, and asbestos is the only building material that is banned for building use. The controlled pollutants include heavy metals, radon, formaldehyde, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Emission rate control based upon environment chamber testing is very much in the nature of voluntary product labeling and ranking, and this mainly targets formaldehyde and VOC emissions. It is suggested that radon emission from building materials should be subject to similar emission rate control. A comprehensive set criteria and credit-awarding scheme that encourages the use of low-emission building material is synthesized, and how this scheme can be practiced in building design is proposed and discussed.     

Indoor air quality: Radon—Report on a WHO working group

The WHO Regional Office for Europe organized a working group in Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia, on 26–30 August 1985, which discussed radon as a pollutant affecting indoor air quality. Much of the natural background radiation to which the general public is exposed comes from the decay of ²²⁶Ra which produces radon gas and other products. Because radium is a trace element in most rock and soil, indoor concentrations of radon can come from a wide variety of substances, such as building materials and the soil under building foundations. Tap water taken from wells or underground springs may be an additional source. Radon daughter concentrations are considerably higher indoors than outdoors and are of the order of 2–5 Bq m⁻³ equilibrium equivalent radon (EER) concentration. It has been estimated that current exposure to radon gas could account for as much as 5–15% of all lung cancer deaths. It was recommended that, in general, buildings with concentrations of more than 100 Bq m⁻³ EER, as an annual average, should be considered for remedial action to lower such concentrations if simple measures are possible.     

Radon exhalation of cementitious materials made with coal fly ash: Part 2--testing hardened cement-fly ash pastes

Increased interest in measuring radionuclides and radon concentrations in fly ash (FA), cement and other components of building products is due to the concern about health hazards of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM). The paper focuses on studying the influence of FA on radon exhalation rate (radon flux) from cementitious materials. In the previous part of the paper the state of the art was presented, and the experiments for testing raw materials, Portland cement and coal fly ash, were described. Since the cement and FA have the most critical role in the radon release process relative to other concrete constituents (sand and gravel), and their contribution is dominant in the overall radium content of concrete, tests were carried out on cement paste specimens with different FA contents, 0-60% by weight of the binder (cement+FA). It is found that the dosage of FA in cement paste has a limited influence on radon exhalation rate, if the hardened material is relatively dense. The radon flux of cement-FA pastes is lower than that of pure cement paste: it is about approximately 3 mBq m(-2) s(-1) for cement-FA pastes with FA content as high as 960 kg m(-3).     

Playing with fire: the global threat presented by brominated flame retardants justifies urgent substitution

Few would now deny that the use of organobromine compounds to achieve fire retardancy in a diverse array of products and materials has led to contamination of the ecosphere on a widespread scale. This environmental prevalence and persistence of the brominated flame retardants, coupled with growing evidence of their potential for harm, present all too familiar parallels with the previous generation of persistent organic pollutants. Indeed, given the intrinsic properties of these brominated chemicals, the nature and extent of the current problem could well have been predicted in advance. The question is then whether we are prepared to let history repeat itself once more or to take precautionary action now to switch to more sustainable alternatives. The choice facing society is not between brominated flame retardants and unsafe products, but between fire safety leading to global contamination or fire safety achieved in less polluting ways. If we look beyond options for simple chemical-for-chemical substitution to alternative materials and designs, many of the solutions are already available. The remainder could undoubtedly be developed given the incentives to do so. However, a strong and clear policy approach, backed by legislative phase-outs within specified (and challenging) timeframes, will be necessary to break our current dependency on organobromine chemistry. This paper presents the justification for such an approach, reviews those initiatives already underway to replace brominated flame retardants and identifies pathways to the use of more sustainable products in the service of society.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ether flame retardants in the U.S. marine environment: A review

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used as flame retardants in polymeric materials such as furnishing foam, rigid plastics and textiles. The U.S. has historically led the world production of these man-made chemicals and was responsible for about 50% of the total global demand in 2001. Paradoxically, scientific studies addressing sources, behavior and fate of PBDEs in the U.S. environment are limited when compared to those in Europe. This paper reviews the distribution of PBDEs in marine and estuarine matrices of the three U.S. coasts (Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf of Mexico) and Alaska. PBDEs are ubiquitous in all compartments including water, sediment and biota. Contamination is higher in urbanized regions such as the coast of California. In numerous cases, concentrations of PBDEs in U.S. marine matrices are among the highest in the world. Higher PBDE levels in the U.S. marine environment reflect that over 90% of the Penta-BDE global production has been utilized in the United States. BDEs 47, 99 and 100 typically dominate the composition of PBDEs in most samples and exhibit high concentrations in several matrices. BDEs 17, 28, 33, 49, 153, 154 and 155 are also of concern since they are known to be present in a minor proportion in the Penta-BDE products. BDEs 206, 207, 208 and 209 which occur in Deca-BDE products do not appear to accumulate in most marine organisms although they may be debrominated into more toxic congeners. There is still no regulation addressing PBDEs contamination in the U.S. aquatic environments. Thus, efforts to understand the cycling of PBDEs in the environment as well as toxic effects in organisms are needed to support the development of quality criteria. Some PBDE congeners fulfill the criteria to be recognized as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The addition of PBDEs to the list of POPs established by the United Nations Stockholm Convention will be important in elevating environmental concerns regarding these chemicals to an appropriate level of awareness.     

Chlorinated paraffins: a review of analysis and environmental occurrence

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs), as technical mixtures of polychlorinated alkanes (PCAs), are ubiquitous in the environment. CPs tend to behave in a similar way to persistent organic pollutants (POPs), leading several countries to impose regulations on the use of CPs. In this article, we review the literature on the properties of CPs, the current analytical tools available to determine CPs in various types of environmental matrices, and concentrations found in the environment. In particular, concentrations of CPs in environmental compartments including air, water, sediments, biota, human food products and human tissues are summarized. Priorities for future research are: improvements in analytical methodologies (reducing the complexity of the analysis, producing reference materials and performing interlaboratory studies); determining background levels of chlorinated paraffins in the environment and human populations (this question should be answered using quality assured analytical tools allowing the intercomparison of data); and investigating the sources of CPs to the environment and to humans.     

Toxic risk of surface water pollution--six years of experience

Assessment of an ecological quality of surface water is necessary for effective protection, abatement and successive revitalisation of river ecosystems. This quality is primarily given by biological impact of surface water pollution. Substances contained in pollution are frequently toxic to aquatic organisms. Risk of chronic impact of surface water pollution is very often underestimated due to hidden long time action of pollutants. Proper estimation of the risk is not possible from results of chemical analyses and data of substances' toxicity. Chemical analyses are not able to detect all substances presented in water including the products of reactions between them. In addition, a simultaneous presence of substances can modify their final effect on aquatic organisms. Therefore, a complex method of assessment of toxic risk of surface water pollution based on ecotoxicological approach was developed. The toxic risk of surface water pollution is determined from results of evaluation of toxic risk of organic part and inorganic part of surface water pollution. Resultant degree of toxic risk of total pollution is given by the highest degree detected in any part of the water pollution. Presented method, which is routinely used for monitoring in the Czech part of the Odra river basin, was fully standardised and published in the form of the Czech branch technical norm of water management (TNV) in the year 2000.     

Changes in the assemblage of necrophilous invertebrates under the effect of pollution with emissions from the Middle Ural Copper Smelter

Changes in the abundance and taxonomic and trophic structure of necrophilous invertebrates inhabiting mixed forests have been studied in the area polluted with the emissions from the Middle Ural Copper Smelter. It has been shown that the abundance of most taxa decreases by factors of 2 to 80 along the pollution gradient, but the trophic structure and composition of major groups vary insignificantly. Changes in the necrophilous assemblage can be caused by either direct (toxic) action of industrial pollutants or their indirect effect exerted through modification of habitats.     

Indoor air pollution due to organic gases and vapours of solvents in building materials

The emission of organic gases and vapours of solvent type from 42 commonly used building materials was measured under standard atmospheric conditions. An average of 22 compounds was found in the air around each building material, and the total concentration of gases and vapours was from 0.01 to 1410 mg/m³. The average arithmetic emission rate was 9.5 mg/m² h, and 52 different compounds were identified. A mathematical model was established for the indoor air concentrations of pollutants originating from building materials. The model was tested on three model rooms constructed from the materials investigated. The calculated total air concentrations of gases and vapours in the three rooms ranged from 1.6 to 23.6 mg/m³, and the number of compounds in the air from 23 to 32. These concentrations and number of compounds did not differ from those found in actual rooms similar in size and construction to the model rooms. The risks of health effects due to the compounds identified from the building materials were investigated, and criteria for future air quality standards are discussed. It is concluded that the possibility of negative health effects cannot be neglected, especially not for the more sensitive minority of the general population.     

Empirically Analysis of the CO2 Emissions Embodied in Exports of China

In this paper,using the input-output model,the author first calculated the CO 2 emissions embodied in exports of China in 2002 and 2007.Then,the author empirically analyzed problems existing in the composition of exported products and analyzed its possible reasons.The research results of this paper are as follows:Since China’s entry into WTO,the CO 2 emissions embodied in exports of China have been increasing rapidly;the value of exported products of high-carbon emissions industries accounts for a relatively higher proportion to China’s total exports value because China’s carbon intensive products have a certain competitive advantage.Additionally,this paper has put forward relevant suggestions based on these results.     

我国建材行业环境标志制度实施及意义

随着我要环境标志制度的实施。自1994年以来我要建材行业环境标志认证有了长足发展．据我国环境标志产品认证委员会秘书处数据。我国建材行业近200家企业的550多种产品获得环境标志认证．其产品涵盖了建材行业的各个方面。其中约有40多家企业近60个建筑涂料企业的产品、50家人造板材企业80多种产品、30余家粘合剂企业等建材行业产口获得环境标志产口认证。这对我国建材行业绩构调整具有十分重要的现实意义。     

Technogenic morphological variation of the pygmy wood mouse (Sylvaemus uralensis pall.) in the Urals

Methods of geometric morphometrics have been used to compare the ranges and directions of geographic and technogenic forms of variation in the morphology of the mandible in Ural populations of pygmy wood mice (Sylvaemus uralensis Pall.) exposed to different types of pollutants (radionuclides, fluorides, and toxic petrochemical products). The range of variation in the mandible morphology consequent to chronic radiation exposure in the zone of the Eastern Ural Radioactive Trace is commensurate to the range of geographic variation of the species observed in the Middle and Southern Urals. Unspecific manifestations of variation have been revealed, which apparently result from exposure to technogenic pollutants of different origin. A probable contribution of technogenic variation to rapid morphogenetic rearrangements in populations is discussed.     

Fluorinated alternatives to long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs) and their potential precursors

Since 2000 there has been an on-going industrial transition to replace long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs) and their precursors. To date, information on these replacements including their chemical identities, however, has not been published or made easily accessible to the public, hampering risk assessment and management of these chemicals. Here we review information on fluorinated alternatives in the public domain. We identify over 20 fluorinated substances that are applied in [i] fluoropolymer manufacture, [ii] surface treatment of textile, leather and carpets, [iii] surface treatment of food contact materials, [iv] metal plating, [v] fire-fighting foams, and [vi] other commercial and consumer products. We summarize current knowledge on their environmental releases, persistence, and exposure of biota and humans. Based on the limited information available, it is unclear whether fluorinated alternatives are safe for humans and the environment. We identify three major data gaps that must be filled to perform meaningful risk assessments and recommend generation of the missing data through cooperation among all stakeholders (industry, regulators, academic scientists and the public).     

Do nanoparticles present ecotoxicological risks for the health of the aquatic environment?

Nanotechnology is a major innovative scientific and economic growth area, which may present a variety of hazards for environmental and human health. The surface properties and very small size of nanoparticles and nanotubes provide surfaces that may bind and transport toxic chemical pollutants, as well as possibly being toxic in their own right by generating reactive radicals. There is a wealth of evidence for the harmful effects of nanoscale combustion-derived particulates (ultrafines), which when inhaled can cause a number of pulmonary pathologies in mammals and humans. However, release of manufactured nanoparticles into the aquatic environment is largely an unknown. This review addresses the possible hazards associated with nanomaterials and harmful effects that may result from exposure of aquatic animals to nanoparticles. Possible nanoparticle association with naturally occurring colloids and particles is considered together with how this could affect their bioavailability and uptake into cells and organisms. Uptake by endocytotic routes are identified as probable major mechanisms of entry into cells; potentially leading to various types of toxic cell injury. The higher level consequences for damage to animal health, ecological risk and possible food chain risks for humans are also considered based on known behaviours and toxicities for inhaled and ingested nanoparticles in the terrestrial environment. It is concluded that a precautionary approach is required with individual evaluation of new nanomaterials for risk to the health of the environment. Although current toxicity testing protocols should be generally applicable to identify harmful effects associated with nanoparticles, research into new methods is required to address the special properties of nanomaterials.     

马颊河水系三条河流水质变化及污染物入海通量分析

分析了徒骇河、德惠新河与马颊河2003~2010年入海断面水质变化状况及入海通量的变化趋势。结果表明：徒骇河与德惠新河主要超标污染物为CODCr、CODMn、BOD5、NH3 N、石油类,主要表现为耗氧类有机污染与有机有毒类污染。马颊河主要超标污染物除CODCr、CODMn、BOD5、NH3 N、石油类外,还包括TP与VHB,以上各水质指标浓度分别超过III类水质标准的9、7、12、6、7、9、13倍,表现为耗氧类有机污染、营养盐类污染及有机有毒类污染问题。3条河流中,马颊河污染最为严重。研究期间,除德惠新河的无机无毒类与有机有毒类分类综合污染指数呈一定的上升趋势外,其它类别分类综合污染指数均呈下降趋势,表明3条河流的污染程度有所缓解。徒骇河TN、TP的入海通量总体上呈下降的趋势,其他两条河流污染物的入海通量均有所增加,至2010年,3条河流CODCr、CODMn、NH3 N、TN、TP及石油类入海通量分别为73 871、12 963、1 025、26、69、162 t,16 075、2 997、365、304、13、31 t及51 571、10 801、1 738、626、934、140 t;且3条河流主要污染物入海通量的贡献顺序为徒骇河>马颊河>德惠新河     

Empirically Analysis of the CO2 Emissions Embodied in Exports of China

Abstract

In this paper, using the input-output model, the author first calculated the CO₂ emissions embodied in exports of China in 2002 and 2007. Then, the author empirically analyzed problems existing in the composition of exported products and analyzed its possible reasons. The research results of this paper are as follows: Since China’s entry into WTO, the CO₂ emissions embodied in exports of China have been increasing rapidly; the value of exported products of high-carbon emissions industries accounts for a relatively higher proportion to China’s total exports value because China’s carbon intensive products have a certain competitive advantage. Additionally, this paper has put forward relevant suggestions based on these results.     

A systemic health risk assessment for the chromium cycle in Taiwan

Health risk assessment (HRA) has been recognized as a useful tool for identifying health risks of human activities. In particular, this method has been well applied to spatially defined units, such as a production plant, a treatment facility, and a contaminated site. However, the management strategies based on the risk information will be more efficient if the comprehensive picture of total risks from all kinds of sources is depicted. In principle, the total risks can be obtained when all risk sources are assessed individually. Apparently, this approach demands huge amount of efforts. This study develops a methodology that combines substance flow and risk estimation to facilitate examination of risk in a systemic way and provide comprehensive understanding of risk generation and distribution corresponding to flows of substances in the anthroposphere and the environment. Substance flow analysis (SFA) and HRA method is integrated to produce a systemic risk assessment method, from which substance management schemes can be derived. In this study, the chromium cycle in Taiwan is used as an example to demonstrate the method, by which the associated substance flow in the economy and the risk caused by the substance in the environmental system is determined. The concentrations of pollutants in the environmental media, the resultant risks and hazard quotients are calculated with the widely-used CalTOX multimedia model.     

A study about remedial measures to reduce 222Rn concentration in an experimental building

Radon gas emanating from underground can spread to adjoining closed areas. It can concentrate and reach levels which represent a risk to people's health. It is well known that radon presence in most areas depends mainly on the area's geological features. Indoor radon concentrations further depend on the type of structure, construction materials and the technology used for the building. Therefore, indoor radon monitoring is of primary importance for deciding whether remedial measures are to be adopted for reducing harmful concentrations. This approach has been tried by measuring radon concentration in an experimental building situated in Milan (Italy). This building situated in a geological area that is considered at low radon risk. The results were obtained after analysing radon concentration in indoor rooms, crawl spaces, soil gas and in the atmosphere outside and by measuring before and after adoption of remedial measures. The study shows that improper building design can give rise to higher indoor radon accumulation even in an area of poor radon exhalation. Furthermore, the results enable quantification of the effectiveness of the remedial measures.     

Radon exhalation of cementitious materials made with coal fly ash: Part 1--scientific background and testing of the cement and fly ash emanation

Increased interest in measuring radionuclides and radon concentrations in fly ash, cement and other components of building products is due to the concern of health hazards of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM). The current work focuses on studying the influence of fly ash (FA) on radon-exhalation rate (radon flux) from cementitious materials. The tests were carried out on cement paste specimens with different FA contents. The first part of the paper presents the scientific background and describes the experiments, which we designed for testing the radon emanation of the raw materials used in the preparation of the cement-FA pastes. It is found that despite the higher (226)Ra content in FA (more than 3 times, compared with Portland cement) the radon emanation is significantly lower in FA (7.65% for cement vs. 0.52% only for FA).