Radioactivity from coal-fired power plants: A review

The radioactivity contents of coal and of the different types of ash formed during its combustion are reviewed. Also, the radiological impact of coal-fired plants and the plant features causing this impact are discussed. The depletion or enrichment of radionuclides in the different types of ash is interpreted in terms of the combustion temperature, the size of ash particles and the chemical forms of the radionuclides. The volatilization-condensation process as the postulated mechanism of radionuclide enrichment is also discussed.Past studies of the release of radionuclides from coal-fired plants are compared and the environmental pathways of the radionuclides are highlighted. Individual and collective radiation doses calculated for various coal-fired plants are evaluated and the importance of the different pathways to man is outlined.     

Brominated flame retardants and seafood safety: A review

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs), frequently applied to industrial and household products to make them less flammable, are highly persistent in the environment and cause multi-organ toxicity in human and wildlife. Based on the review of BFRs presence in seafood published from 2004 to 2014, it is clear that such pollutants are not ideally controlled as the surveys are too restricted, legislation inexistent for some classes, the analytical methodologies diversified, and several factors as food processing and eating habits are generally overlooked. Indeed, while a seafood rich diet presents plenty of nutritional benefits, it can also represent a potential source of these environmental contaminants. Since recent studies have shown that dietary intake constitutes a main route of human exposure to BFRs, it is of major importance to review and enhance these features, since seafood constitutes a chief pathway for human exposure and biomagnification of priority environmental contaminants. In particular, more objective studies focused on the variability factors behind contamination levels, and subsequent human exposure, are necessary to support the necessity for more restricted legislation worldwide.     

A review of traffic-related air pollution exposure assessment studies in the developing world

Exposure assessment studies in the developing world are important. Although recent years have seen an increasing number of traffic-related pollution exposure studies, exposure assessment data on this topic are still limited. Differences among measuring methods and a lack of strict quality control in carrying out exposure assessment make it difficult to generalize and compare findings between studies. In this article, exposure assessment studies carried out in the developing world on several traffic-related air pollutants are reviewed. These pollutants include particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). In addition, it discusses advantages and disadvantages of various monitoring methods (ambient fixed-site monitoring, microenvironment monitoring, and personal exposure assessment using portable samplers) for these pollutants in exposure assessment studies. Also included in this paper is a brief introduction of standards for these pollutants in ambient air or in occupational settings established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), the United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the World Health Organization (WHO). The review ends with a summary of the limitations and gaps in recent studies and suggestions for future research in the developing world.     

Simulation modelling for sustainability: a review of the literature

This article is a review of work published in various journals and conference proceedings on the topics of Simulation Modelling for Sustainability between January 2000 and May 2015. A total of 192 papers are reviewed. The article intends to serve three goals. First, it will be useful to researchers who wish to know what kinds of questions have been raised and how they have been addressed in the areas of simulation modelling for sustainability. Second, the article will be a useful resource for searching research topics. Third, it will serve as a comprehensive bibliography of the papers published during the period. The literature is analysed for application areas, simulation methods and dimensions of the triple bottom line model of sustainable development.     

Coastal marine eutrophication assessment: a review on data analysis

A wide variety of data analysis techniques have been applied for quantitative assessment of coastal marine eutrophication. Indicators for assessing eutrophication and frequency distributions have been used to develop scales for characterizing oligotrophy and eutrophication. Numerical classification has also contributed to the assessment of eutrophic trends by grouping sampling sites of similar trophic conditions. Applications of eutrophication assessment based on Principal Component Analysis and Multidimensional Scaling have also been carried out. In addition, the rapid development of Geographical Information Systems has provided the framework for applications of spatial methods and mapping techniques on eutrophication studies. Satellite data have also contributed to eutrophication assessment especially at large scale. Multiple criteria analysis methods can integrate eutrophication variables together with socio-economic parameters providing a holistic approach particularly useful to policy makers. As the current concept of eutrophication problems is to be examined as part of a coastal management approach, more complex quantitative procedures are needed to provide a platform useful for implementation of environmental policy. The present work reviews methods of data analysis used for the assessment of coastal marine eutrophication. The difficulties in applying these methods on data collected from the marine environment are discussed as well as the future perspectives of spatial and multiple criteria choice methods.     

Accumulation of radiocesium by mushrooms in the environment: a literature review

During the last 50 years, a large amount of information on radionuclide accumulators or "sentinel-type" organisms in the environment has been published. Much of this work focused on the risks of food-chain transfer of radionuclides to higher organisms such as reindeer and man. Until the 1980s and 1990s, there were few published data on the radiocesium ((134)Cs and (137)Cs) accumulation by mushrooms. The present review of published data for (134,137)Cs accumulation by mushrooms in nature discusses the aspects that promote (134,137)Cs uptake by mushrooms and focuses on mushrooms that demonstrate a propensity for use in the environmental biomonitoring of radiocesium contamination. Transfer factors (TF, as dry weight concentration in fruiting body divided by concentration in substrate) ranged up to 24 (unitless), and aggregate transfer factors (T(ag), as Bq(137)Cs/kg dw in fruiting body divided by the aerial deposition as Bq/m(2)) ranged up to 8m(2)/kg dw.     

Living near nuclear power plants and thyroid cancer risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis

There has been public concern regarding the safety of residing near nuclear power plants, and the extent of risk for thyroid cancer among adults living near nuclear power plants has not been fully explored. In the present study, a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies was conducted to investigate the association between living near nuclear power plants and the risk of thyroid cancer. A comprehensive literature search was performed on studies published up to March 2015 on the association between nuclear power plants and thyroid cancer risk. The summary standardized incidence ratio (SIR), standardized mortality ratio (SMR), and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using a random-effect model of meta-analysis. Sensitivity analyses were performed by study quality. Thirteen studies were included in the meta-analysis, covering 36 nuclear power stations in 10 countries. Overall, summary estimates showed no significant increased thyroid cancer incidence or mortality among residents living near nuclear power plants (summary SIR = 0.98; 95% CI 0.87–1.11, summary SMR = 0.80; 95% CI 0.62–1.04). The pooled estimates did not reveal different patterns of risk by gender, exposure definition, or reference population. However, sensitivity analysis by exposure definition showed that living less than 20 km from nuclear power plants was associated with a significant increase in the risk of thyroid cancer in well-designed studies (summary OR = 1.75; 95% CI 1.17–2.64). Our study does not support an association between living near nuclear power plants and risk of thyroid cancer but does support a need for well-designed future studies.     

Uncertainties in human health risk assessment of environmental contaminants: A review and perspective

Addressing uncertainties in human health risk assessment is a critical issue when evaluating the effects of contaminants on public health. A range of uncertainties exist through the source-to-outcome continuum, including exposure assessment, hazard and risk characterisation. While various strategies have been applied to characterising uncertainty, classical approaches largely rely on how to maximise the available resources. Expert judgement, defaults and tools for characterising quantitative uncertainty attempt to fill the gap between data and regulation requirements. The experiences of researching 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) illustrated uncertainty sources and how to maximise available information to determine uncertainties, and thereby provide an ‘adequate’ protection to contaminant exposure. As regulatory requirements and recurring issues increase, the assessment of complex scenarios involving a large number of chemicals requires more sophisticated tools. Recent advances in exposure and toxicology science provide a large data set for environmental contaminants and public health. In particular, biomonitoring information, in vitro data streams and computational toxicology are the crucial factors in the NexGen risk assessment, as well as uncertainties minimisation. Although in this review we cannot yet predict how the exposure science and modern toxicology will develop in the long-term, current techniques from emerging science can be integrated to improve decision-making.     

自然资源资产负债表研究现状、评述与改进方向

自然资源资产负债表概念是中国的一项重要理论和制度创新,但其研究还存在一些问题和争议,如对自然资源资产负债表中资源类别未能达成共识,对资产、负债和权益的界定不清晰,价值核算还不准确等。此外,其编制工作也进展缓慢。本文认为,自然资源资产负债表基础理论和方法都尚不成熟,需要重新诠释概念,并引入新的核算方法,使其中的资产、负债和权益概念更加清晰,数量核算和价值核算方法更加科学。可以另辟蹊径,借鉴生态足迹的思想,从三方面做出改进:第一,将资源类别界定为耕地、林地、草地、湿地、水域、能源矿产和非能源矿产七类,以避免重复核算问题。第二,进一步明确土地和矿产两类资源的资产、负债和权益的含义,可以引入生态足迹方法,用土地生态足迹、生态承载力和生态赤字分别衡量土地资产、土地权益和土地(过载)负债,使得土地过载负债的核算成为可能,且在土地权益核算时能够同时考虑土地面积和质量;可以用已消耗的矿产资源衡量环境负债,以避免环境负债价值的系统性偏误问题。第三,可以将生态足迹方法与生态系统服务价值评估方法结合起来,以估算土地的资产、权益和负债价值,以避免土地价值估算的系统性偏误问题;可以用改进的市场价格法核算矿产或环境的三种价值,避免环境负债价值核算的随意性。引入生态足迹方法可以使自然资源资产负债表中的资产、负债和权益概念更加清晰易懂,并使得资源的数量核算和价值核算方法更加科学,结果更加可信。     

Sea to air transport of trace gases in the coastal zone: a literature review

Exchange of trace gases between the oceans and the atmosphere affects the atmospheric content and cycling of a range of chemical species which are related to climate change, ozone layer depletion, acid deposition, eutrophication, atmospheric particle formation, photo-oxidants, trace metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The effects and impacts of air–sea exchange of these gases can be local, regional and global. Until now, most of the research has concentrated on the sea–air exchange of trace gases in the open ocean. The flux rates of the trace gases from the coastal waters to the air are much higher than the rates for the open ocean and the contribution of the coastal areas to the total oceanic emissions of these trace gases can be significant on a global scale. This contribution can be as high as 50% and more for nitrous oxide and COS. Concerning the contribution of the trace gas production in the coastal areas to the total global production of these gases, it can be concluded that this contribution seems to be below 2% except for nitrous oxide. However, it should be pointed out that on the local and even regional scale the emissions in the coastal areas can be very important, contributing substantially to the total emission of these gases in a studied area. Thus, there is a need to carry out studies in the future with the aim to provide more accurate understanding of the production and sea–air exchange processes for these gases around the world. Electronic Publication     

Environmental implications of planned obsolescence and product lifetime: a literature review

The aim of this paper was to explore the implications of planned obsolescence (PO) and the associated product lifetime on the environmental impact of products. To achieve this task, a literature review was performed to assess both the historical context and recent situation of planned obsolescence. A search in scholarly journals was performed to evaluate to what extent product lifetime and PO have been discussed in the recent literature. Based on the findings, selected cases of PO are discussed and trends in the practice of limiting product lifetime are identified. Factors considered to have a significant influence on product lifetime have been identified and discussed. The discussion of case studies made it possible to establish the links between product design, manufacturing and associated impacts of lifetime. The role of the actors along the value chain is also considered to propose a business scheme, where the influences of consumer behaviour and design choices are crucial. Finally, strategies to facilitate the definition of different scenarios are given. These strategies may serve to increase the reliability of environmental assessment throughout a product life cycle.     

Uncertainties of internal dose assessment for animals and plants due to non-homogeneously distributed radionuclides

The dose conversion coefficients (DCCs) for the assessment of internal absorbed dose rate in reference animals and plants have been generally calculated assuming a homogeneous distribution of radionuclides within the body. Realistic scenarios of internal exposure must account for some radionuclides which tend to concentrate in specific organs or tissues. To study the effect of such inhomogeneous distributions, internal DCCs have been calculated assuming both a central and an eccentric point source. The analysis of the results showed that uncertainties of the whole body DCC due to non-homogeneous radionuclide distribution are less than 30% for photons and electrons for all considered organisms. For electrons, the uncertainties are negligible below certain energies, dependent on the size of the organisms. Additionally, the organ doses due to the accumulation of the radionuclide in an organ are also described and organ/whole body doses ratios are estimated.     

Reflections on the process of using systematic review techniques to evaluate the literature regarding the neurotoxicity of low level exposure to organophosphate pesticides

We undertook a systematic review (incorporating meta-analysis) of the literature concerning the neurotoxicity of cumulative low level occupational exposure to organophosphate pesticides, which was published online by the journal Critical Reviews in Toxicology in 2012. As far as we are aware, we were the first research team to attempt quantitative evaluation of study findings on this topic, using meta-analysis. We wish to encourage others to apply systematic review techniques in chemical risk assessment to reduce bias, increase transparency and better inform public policy. We thought it would be useful to share our experience of undertaking a systematic review in the hope of dispelling misconceptions about the complexity, time and resource issues involved along with the view that meta-analysis is meaningless when studies are not homogeneous. In this commentary paper we reflect on aspects of the process which were relatively straightforward; aspects which were more challenging; the advantages of using systematic review techniques; and the advantages and limitations of using statistical techniques such as meta-analysis in this context.     

Palaeotempestology: the study of prehistoric tropical cyclones--a review and implications for hazard assessment

Records of prehistoric tropical cyclones occur in the form of ridges of coral rubble, sand, shell, sand and shell, and pumice; erosional terraces in raised gravel beaches; barrier washover deposits; and, sediments deposited in the shallow offshore marine environment. Other less well-documented records occur as variations in isotopic ratios within speleothems and possibly tree rings, and changes in pollen records resulting from introduction of new species after forest disturbance due to cyclonic winds. As yet, such records have not been identified beyond 5500 years of age. Recent palaeotempestological studies in the United States and northern Australia have highlighted that the frequency and magnitude of these natural hazards do not remain constant over time, and there are periods when cyclogenesis is enhanced, and others of relative quiescence. Recognition of such regime changes, or non-stationarity in the long-term record, is important for risk assessments of this hazard. Until now however, few if any risk assessments have incorporated data from the long-term record of tropical cyclones, and instead have relied on generally short instrumented historical records. The longer-term records suggest that such an approach may miscalculate the 1% Annual Exceedance Probability risk to coastal communities from future tropical cyclones.     

A review on the human health impact of airborne particulate matter

Particulate matter (PM) is a key indicator of air pollution brought into the air by a variety of natural and human activities. As it can be suspended over long time and travel over long distances in the atmosphere, it can cause a wide range of diseases that lead to a significant reduction of human life. The size of particles has been directly linked to their potential for causing health problems. Small particles of concern include “inhalable coarse particles” with a diameter of 2.5 to 10 μm and “fine particles” smaller than 2.5 μm in diameter. As the source–effect relationship of PM remains unclear, it is not easy to define such effects from individual sources such as long-range transport of pollution. Because of the potent role of PM and its associated pollutants, detailed knowledge of their human health impacts is of primary importance. This paper summarizes the basic evidence on the health effects of particulate matter. An in-depth analysis is provided to address the implications for policy-makers so that more stringent strategies can be implemented to reduce air pollution and its health effects.     

Occurrence and risk assessment of pharmaceutically active compounds in wastewater treatment plants. A case study: Seville city (Spain)

The occurrence of four anti-inflammatory drugs (diclofenac, ibuprofen, ketoprofen and naproxen), an antiepileptic drug (carbamazepine) and a nervous stimulant (caffeine) in influent and effluent samples from four wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Seville was evaluated. Removal rates in the WWTPs and risk assessment of the pharmaceutically active compounds have been studied. Analytical determination was carried out by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with diode array (DAD) and fluorescence (Fl) detectors after sample clean up and concentration by solid phase extraction. All pharmaceutically active compounds, except diclofenac, were detected not only in wastewater influents but also in wastewater effluents. Mean concentrations of caffeine, carbamazepine, ketoprofen and naproxen ranged between 0.28-11.44 microg l(-1) and 0.21-2.62 microg l(-1) in influent and effluent wastewater, respectively. Ibuprofen was present in the highest concentrations in the range 12.13-373.11 microg l(-1) and 0.78-48.24 microg l(-1) in influent and effluent wastewater, respectively. Removal rates of the pharmaceuticals ranged between 6 and 98%. Risk quotients, expressed as ratios between the measured environmental concentration (MEC) and the predicted no effect concentrations (PNEC) were higher than 1 for ibuprofen and naproxen in influent wastewater and for ibuprofen in effluent wastewater.     

A review of research on the environmental impact of e-business and ICT

This paper attempts to provide a review of the current state of the art of how e-business/ICT affects the environment. The work reviewed is in various forms including journal papers and thesis which have been peer-reviewed, as well as other resources such as projects and project reports, conference and symposia, and websites. It is claimed that the research examined has captured the most important work to date, either for a general knowledge of this new area or for background study by experts carrying out future research. The review has found that the currently dominant approach is either a micro-level case study approach or a macro-level statistical approach. It is concluded that a more predictive and empirical model, which can be applied within a sector of society, should be more beneficial in the long term. This approach should help simulate potential impacts resulting from changes of indicators, so that positive effects can be promoted and negative ones alleviated proactively, rather than knowing and accepting outcomes passively.     

Occurrence of sulfonamide residues along the Ebro River basin: removal in wastewater treatment plants and environmental impact assessment

Sulfonamides (SAs) have become one of the antibiotic families most frequently found in all kind of environmental waters. In the present work, the presence of 16 SAs and one of their acetylated metabolites in different water matrices of the Ebro River basin has been evaluated during two different sampling campaigns carried out in 2007 and 2008. Influent and effluent samples from seven wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), together with a total of 28 river water samples were analyzed by on-line solid phase extraction-liquid chromathography-tandem mass spectrometry (on-line SPE-LC-MS/MS). Sulfamethoxazole and sulfapyridine were the SAs most frequently detected in WWTPs (96-100%), showing also the highest concentrations, ranging from 27.2 ng L(-1) to 596 ng L(-1) for sulfamethoxazole and from 3.7 ng L(-1) to 227 ng L(-1) for sulfapyridine. Sulfamethoxazole was also the SA most frequently detected in surface waters (85% of the samples) at concentrations between 11 ng L(-1) and 112 ng L(-1). In order to assess the effectiveness of the wastewater treatment in degrading SAs, removal efficiencies in the seven WWTPs were calculated for each individual SA (ranging from 4% to 100%) and correlated to the corresponding hydraulic retention times or residence times of the SAs in the plants. SAs half-lives were also estimated, ranging from to 2.5 hours (sulfadimethoxine) to 128 h (sulfamethazine). The contribution of the WWTPs to the presence of SAs depends on both the load of SAs discharging on the surface water from the WWTP effluent but also on the flow of the receiving waters in the discharge sites and the dilution exerted; WWTP4 exerts the highest pressure on the receiving water course. Finally, the potential environmental risk posed by SAs was evaluated calculating the hazard quotients (HQ) to different non-target organisms in effluent and river water. The degree of susceptibility resulted in algae>daphnia>fish. Sulfamethoxazole was the only SA posing a risk to algae in effluent water, with an HQ>7.