Relationship of Breeding System to Rarity in the Lakeside Daisy (Hymenoxys acaulis var. glabra)

The breeding system of a rare Great Lakes endemic, the lakeside daisy ( Hymenoxys acaulis var. glabra ), was investigated when plants from a remnant Illinois population produced no seeds for over 15 years. To determine if the Lakeside daisy was self-incompatible, 20 plants from two populations, Illinois and Ohio, were selfed and outcrossed. Seed/ovule ratios were compared among the different treatments and the location of the incompatibility reaction was identified. Lakeside daisy was found to be self-incompatible (sporophytic). The last Illinois population was effectively extinct because the remaining plants belonged to the same mating type ( N _e = 1) and only produced seeds when outcrossed to the Ohio plants. Cross-incompatibility was also observed among Ohio plants, suggesting that within large populations, compatible mating types may be rare locally. In addition, inbreeding depression (lower seed/ovule ratios in inbred than in outcrosses) was observed after one generation of inbreeding. Small populations of self-incompatible species are vulnerable to extinction if the number of self-incompatibility alleles, either as a result of a bottleneck or of genetic drift, falls below tbe number needed for the breeding system to function. Recovery protocols based on these genetic considerations were developed and implemented in 1988 when Lakeside daisy populations were established at three Illinois nature preserves.     

Female sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus use self-reference to optimize MHC allele number during mate selection

Theoretical and empirical studies suggest that an optimal resistance to pathogens and parasites requires an optimal number of MHC alleles per individual. Here we argue that three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) achieve this goal by applying a strategy that involves a self-referential process. According to this model, females complement their own set of alleles with a more or less diverse set of male alleles such that the combined diversity reaches an optimum. In previous experiments, we have identified allele counting as a major mate-choice strategy in large populations. The self-referential allele-counting hypothesis predicts that MHC-based mate choice favors dissimilar MHC alleles in small populations facing the risk of inbreeding. Therefore, we conducted an experiment that simulated a small effective population size with low MHC class-II diversity. Our experiments are based on the analysis of MHC class-IIB alleles that explain a major part of the overall MHC diversity in sticklebacks, as determined by mathematical modeling. The results show that females preferred males with dissimilar alleles. Our present and the previous studies (which we reanalyzed with respect to our new predictions) show that irrespective of high or low population diversity faced by female sticklebacks for their mate choice, they use information about their own and their potential mate's MHC polymorphism for optimal complementation of their own set of alleles. From combining the data of the previous and the present experiment we found that female sticklebacks try to achieve an optimum number of MHC class-IIB alleles for their offspring through mate choice. The chosen MHC diversity is close to the most frequent diversity found naturally in individual fish, which in addition have the lowest parasite burden.     

Effect of Forest Fragmentation on Genetic Diversity and Mating System in a Tropical Tree, Pithecellobium elegans

Genetic diversity, population differentiation, and temporal variation in outcrossing rates were examined for Pithecellobium elegans , a Neotropical rain forest canopy tree. Several forest fragments and a large reserve (1500 ha) were compared for several population genetic parameters. For eight populations sampled on the Atlantic coastal plain of Costa Rica, allozyme heterozygosity (0.13), polymorphism (35%), and effective number of alleles (1.24) were similar to values reported for other tropical tree species that occur at similar densities of less than one individual per hectare. These measures of genetic variation were lowest in populations of the smallest size, farthest from the reserve, and more isolated from other populations. Differentiation among samples collected in small forest fragments and the reserve population accounted for 10% of the total genetic variation observed. There was a positive relationship between the level of differentiation of populations from the reserve population and their distance from the reserve. Though predominantly an annually flowering species, the number of trees in flower at any one time varied from 80% of observed trees to only 6%. Outcrossing rates did not differ for two episodes in which the proportions of flowering trees were 33% and 80%. But periods of low density of flowering adults resulted in poor seed crops or failure to set fruit for many individuals. Population size at many sites will be effectively decreased because of the variation in flowering. Fragmentation of what was once a large, continuous forested area is resulting in genetic erosion of small, isolated populations of Pithecellobium elegans .     

Influence of Habitat Patchiness on Genetic Diversity and Spatial Structure of a Serpentine Endemic Plant

Abstract: Conservation of rare plant species often involves small, local populations dispersed within apparently suitable habitat. We used enzyme electrophoresis to study genotypic diversity in 32 populations of Calystegia collina , a self-incompatible clonal plant endemic to serpentine substrate in northern California's Coast Range. Genotypic diversity within a population was a good predictor of seed set by randomly marked flowers. Ramets from the most abundant genotypes in a population were most likely to produce flowers, but flowers from abundant genotypes were less likely to produce seed capsules than were flowers from rarer genotypes. These results are consistent with previous findings that reproductive success in C. collina is limited by the availability of compatible pollen. On small serpentine outcrops supporting only one or two populations, C. collina did not show reduced genotypic diversity or heterozygosity compared with populations on large outcrops supporting many populations. Instead, genotypic diversity and outcrop size had strong but independent influences on reproductive success. Although large serpentine outcrops contain more populations and provide better conditions for flower and seed production, significant diversity of unique genotypes clearly exists in isolated serpentine outcrops. Our findings suggest that plant conservation strategies must take into account the natural distribution of populations. The effects of habitat fragmentation on C. collina and other plant species that occur naturally in small, discrete patches may be unlike those that have been documented in more recently fragmented species.     

The interplay between environmental conditions and allee effects during the recovery of stressed zooplankton communities

Many important ecological phenomena depend on the success or failure of small introduced populations. Several factors are thought to influence the fate of small populations, including resource and habitat availability, dispersal levels, interspecific interactions, mate limitation, and demographic stochasticity. Recent field studies suggest that Allee effects resulting from mate limitation can prevent the reestablishment of sexual zooplankton species following a disturbance. In this study, we explore the interplay between Allee effects and local environmental conditions in determining the population growth and establishment of two acid-sensitive zooplankton species that have been impacted by regional anthropogenic acidification. We conducted a factorial design field experiment to test the impact of pH and initial organism densities on the per capita population growth (r) of the sexual copepod Epischura lacustris and the seasonally parthenogenetic cladoceran Daphnia mendotae. In addition, we conducted computer simulations using r values obtained from our experiments to determine the probability of extinction for small populations of acid-sensitive colonists that are in the process of colonizing recovering lakes. The results of our field experiment demonstrated that local environmental conditions can moderate the impacts of Allee effects for E. lacustris: Populations introduced at low densities had a significantly lower r at pH 6 than at pH 7. In contrast, r did not differ between pH 6 and 7 environments when E. lacustris populations were introduced at high densities. D. mendotae was affected by pH levels, but not by initial organism densities. Results from our population growth simulations indicated that E. lacustris populations introduced at low densities to pH 6 conditions had a higher probability of extinction than those introduced at low densities to a pH 7 environment. Our study indicates that environmental conditions and mate limitation can interact to determine the fate of small populations of sexually reproducing zooplankton species. If a more rapid recovery of acid-damaged zooplankton communities is desired, augmentation of dispersal levels may be needed during the early phases of pH recovery in order to increase the probability of establishment for mate-limited zooplankton species.     

Effects of Population Size, Mating System, and Evolutionary Origin on Genetic Diversity in Spiranthes sinensis and S. hongkongensis

Hong Kong once supported more than 109 species of wild orchids, of which approximately 30% were endemic. Most of the local wild orchids have now become rare or endangered. I conducted a comparative study of genetic diversity in two closely related terrestrial orchids, an allotetraploid, Spiranthes hongkongensis , and its diploid progenitor, S. sinensis , to assess the effects of the population bottleneck associated with the origin of the polyploid and to investigate the relationships between number of breeding individuals, mating system, and level of isozyme variation in their populations. Nearly complete genetic uniformity was observed both within and among populations of S. hongkongensis . In contrast, S. sinensis had high levels of genetic variation for all of the genetic parameters examined. Regression analysis of population size and several components of genetic diversity in S. sinensis revealed that, among various measures of within-population variation, the proportion of polymorphic loci ( P ) and average number of alleles per locus ( A ) or per polymorphic locus ( A _p ) were the most sensitive to population size ( R ² = 0.942, p = 0.001; R ² = 0.932, p = 0.002; and R ² = 0.923, p = 0.002 respectively). The highly negative correlation ( r = −0.999, p < 0.01) between population size and the mean frequency of private alleles in pairwise population comparisons, p (1), indicated that population size may also be used to predict the extent of population differentiation caused by random genetic drift. Conservation of genetic diversity in S. sinensis could be maximized by protecting several of both large and small populations, whereas fewer populations may be needed to achieve this goal for S. hongkongensis.     

Genetic Structure of Fragmented Populations of the Endangered Daisy Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides

Abstract: The endangered grassland daisy Rutidosis leptorrhynchoides has been subject to severe habitat destruction and fragmentation over the past century. Using allozyme markers, we examined the genetic diversity and structure of 16 fragmented populations. The species had high genetic variation compared to other plant species, and both polymorphism and allelic richness showed strong positive relationships with log reproductive population size, reflecting a loss of rare alleles (frequency of q < 0.1) in smaller populations. Fixation coefficients were positively related to size, due either to a lack of rare homozygotes in small populations or to Wahlund effects (owing to spatial genetic structure) in large ones. Neither gene diversity nor heterozygosity was related to population size, and other population parameters such as density, spatial contagion, and isolation had no apparent effect on genetic variation. Genetic divergence among populations was low , despite a large north-to-south break in the species' current distribution. To preserve maximum genetic variation, conservation strategies should aim to maintain the five populations larger than 5000 reproductive plants, all of which occur in the north of the range, as well as the largest southern population of 626 plants at Truganina. Only one of these is currently under formal protection. High heterozygosity in smaller populations suggests that they are unlikely to be suffering from inbreeding depression and so are also valuable for conservation. Erosion of allelic richness at self-incompatibility loci, however, may limit the reproductive capacity of populations numbering less than 20 flowering plants.     

Evidence for seasonal mate limitation in populations of an intertidal amphipod, Corophium volutator (Pallas)

Potential rates of reproduction (PRR) differ between the sexes of many animal species. Adult sex ratios together with PRR are expected to determine the operational sex ratio (OSR) defined as the ratio of fertilizable females to sexually active males at any given time. OSR is expected to determine the degree to which one sex competes for another—the limiting sex. We explored the potential for mate limitation in an intertidal amphipod, Corophium volutator (Pallas). Males have higher PRR than females, but males may be limiting because of extreme female-biased sex ratios observed in this species. Consistent with this idea, late season females were less likely to be ovigerous and had smaller size-specific clutches, both of which were associated with seasonal declines in availability of males of reproductive size. Seasonal changes in ovigery could not be explained by seasonal changes across sites in other factors (e.g., female body size or phenology of breeding). Smaller females were less likely to become ovigerous later in the season at three of four sites. Seasonal reductions in clutch size also occurred among small females expected to be reproducing for their first time. In complimentary laboratory experiments, reduced likelihood of ovigery and reduced fecundity occurred when the number of receptive females was increased relative to availability of a reproductively active male. Our results suggest male mate limitation can occur seasonally in this species and that male limitation is regionally widespread and may affect recruitment.     

Genetic Variation and Outcrossing Rate in Relation to Population Size in Gentiana pneumonanthe L

The amount of genetic variation in the rare perennial herb Gentiana pneumonanthe L. was determined to explore its relation to population size. Differences in isozyme variation between maternal plants and their offspring were used to investigate the relationship between population size and outcrossing rate. In 25 populations in The Netherlands, differing in size from 1 to more than 50,000 flowering individuals, 16 allozyme loci were analyzed on leaves of maternal plants and offspring grown in a greenhouse. Population size was significantly positively correlated with the proportion of polymorphic loci, but only marginally with heterozygosity and the mean effective number of alleles. Most of the studied populations were characterized by a complete absence of rare alleles, and F -statistics suggest relatively high levels of genetic differentiation among populations and thus a low level of gene flow. Leaf samples (maternal) were mostly in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, while several offspring samples showed an excess of homozygotes, which suggests selection favoring heterozygotes. Because most small populations consist only of adult survivors from formerly larger populations, this may partly explain the absence of a clear relationship between genetic variation of the maternal plants and population size. A significant positive correlation was found between the level of cross-fertilization and population size. From these results, we conclude that, to some degree, small populations have a reduced level of genetic variation, while their present isolation in nature reserves has resulted in a very limited interpopulational gene flow level. At present a higher level of inbreeding in small populations contributes to a further loss of genetic variation and may also result in reduced offspring fitness.     

Predicted Genetic Consequences of Strong Fertility Selection Due to Pollinator Loss in an Isolated Population of Primula sieboldii

Previous studies demonstrated strong fertility selection for a self-fertile, homostyle morph due to pollinator loss in an isolated population of Primula sieboldii , an endangered heterostylous species. To predict genetic consequences of the selection we developed a deterministic genetic model based on a classical "supergene" model, and we studied the effects of pollinator availability and inbreeding depression on temporal changes of morph frequencies through model simulation. Because of the severe pollinator limitation experienced by the population, fast, irreversible loss of the thrum morph from the population was predicted, even if high inbreeding depression was assumed. To prevent the breakdown of the normal breeding system of the species, morph frequency monitoring for timely active management should be implemented. Active management should include hand pollinations and pollinator therapy—reintroduction and reestablishment of suitable pollinator populations. The method we adopted in this study to parametrize pollinator availability can be used widely in conservation modeling for a range of plant species that have multiple mating types with different degrees of self-incompatibility.     

Socioecological correlates of inter-individual variation in orangutan diets at Ketambe, Sumatra

The diet of great apes consists of several hundred plant species. The factors determining diet differences have been examined between populations but not within a population, probably due to the confounding effect of seasonal fluctuations on fruit availability. In Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii), fruit availability appears to be sufficiently high year round to have little influence on diet composition, which in turn allows for addressing this question. We examined the diet of eight adult female orangutans at Ketambe, Sumatra, and investigated whether fig and non-fig fruit availability, association time, and/or home range measures influenced dietary overlap between female dyads. Between most pairs, females’ diets were different: 16 out of 23 pairs had a significantly low diet species overlap. Only fig diet overlap was influenced (negatively) by the availability of non-fig fruit. Association time only influenced (positively) fig diet overlap. Hence, orangutans gathered in fig trees when non-fig fruit availability was low. Home range measures did not influence overall diet overlap. To our knowledge, this is the first study showing that, while controlling for confounding factors, individuals with similar energetic requirements, from the same population and sharing the same area, make different dietary choices relatively to their preferred (non-fig) fruit constituting the majority of their diet. Social transmission, with putative matrilineal diet traditions, suitably explains these results. We discuss the implications of the findings for orangutan conservation, namely on reintroduction and the felling of fig trees.     

Unprecedented Low Levels of Genetic Variation and Inbreeding Depression in an Island Population of the Black-Footed Rock-Wallaby

Abstract: It has been argued that demographic and environmental factors will cause small, isolated populations to become extinct before genetic factors have a significant negative impact. Islands provide an ideal opportunity to test this hypothesis because they often support small, isolated populations that are highly vulnerable to extinction. To assess the potential negative impact of isolation and small population size, we compared levels of genetic variation and fitness in island and mainland populations of the black-footed rock-wallaby ( Petrogale lateralis [Marsupialia: Macropodidae]). Our results indicate that the Barrow Island population of P. lateralis has unprecedented low levels of genetic variation (  H _e = 0.053, from 10 microsatellite loci) and suffers from inbreeding depression (reduced female fecundity, skewed sex ratio, increased levels of fluctuating asymmetry). Despite a long period of isolation ( ∼ 1600 generations) and small effective population size (  N _e ∼ 15), demographic and environmental factors have not yet driven this population to extinction. Nevertheless, it has been affected significantly by genetic factors. It has lost most of its genetic variation and become highly inbred (  F _e = 0.91), and it exhibits reduced fitness. Because several other island populations of P. lateralis also exhibit exceptionally low levels of genetic variation, this phenomenon may be widespread. Inbreeding in these populations is at a level associated with high rates of extinction in populations of domestic and laboratory species. Genetic factors cannot then be excluded as contributing to the extinction proneness of small, isolated populations.     

Population genetics of the fissiparous holothurians Stichopus chloronotus and Holothuria atra (Aspidochirotida): a comparison between the Torres Strait and La Réunion

Collections of about 50 individuals from each of five populations of the fissiparous holothurian species Stichopus chloronotus and four populations of Holothuria atra were made in 1999. These populations were located in the Torres Strait (western Pacific) and La Réunion (western Indian Ocean). Allozyme electrophoretic surveys of five (S. chloronotus) and six (H. atra) loci were conducted to compare patterns of asexual reproduction and to investigate connectivity between regions separated by large geographic distances. Deviations from genotype frequencies expected under Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, mostly heterozygote excesses, were observed in all populations of both species. The maximum contribution of sexual reproduction (calculated as the maximum number of sexually produced individuals: sample size=N*/N_i) was similar for all S. chloronotus (58-64%) and H. atra (76-92%) populations, and on the same level as previously reported for midshelf reefs of the Great Barrier Reef. The higher values in the latter species indicated greater contributions of asexual reproduction to S. chloronotus populations. Variability was strongly reduced in S. chloronotus populations at La Réunion, with only one locus being variable in that population. When the dataset was reduced to one representative per multi-locus genotype per population to reduce the effect of asexual reproduction on calculations on gene flow, F_ST values were not significantly different from zero, suggesting high gene flow between these regions. However UPGMA cluster analyses using Rogers' genetic distance, roughly clustered populations by region. In the case of H. atra, pooled populations within each region were significantly different from those of the other region. Thus, although some restrictions in gene flow and greater genetic distances between the regions may exist, those differences are distinctly less than those reported in previous studies on echinoderms over similar geographic scales. Despite the importance of asexual reproduction for the maintenance of local population size, this study also confirmed that the potential for widespread dispersal mediated by sexually produced larvae is large.     

Stochastic population dynamics in populations of western terrestrial garter snakes with divergent life histories

Comparative evaluations of population dynamics in species with temporal and spatial variation in life-history traits are rare because they require long-term demographic time series from multiple populations. We present such an analysis using demographic data collected during the interval 1978-1996 for six populations of western terrestrial garter snakes (Thamnophis elegans) from two evolutionarily divergent ecotypes. Three replicate populations from a slow-living ecotype, found in mountain meadows of northeastern California, were characterized by individuals that develop slowly, mature late, reproduce infrequently with small reproductive effort, and live longer than individuals of three populations of a fast-living ecotype found at lakeshore locales. We constructed matrix population models for each of the populations based on 8-13 years of data per population and analyzed both deterministic dynamics based on mean annual vital rates and stochastic dynamics incorporating annual variation in vital rates. (1) Contributions of highly variable vital rates to fitness (lambda(s)) were buffered against the negative effects of stochastic variation, and this relationship was consistent with differences between the meadow (M-slow) and lakeshore (L-fast) ecotypes. (2) Annual variation in the proportion of gravid females had the greatest negative effect among all vital rates on lambda(s). The magnitude of variation in the proportion of gravid females and its effect on lambda(s) was greater in M-slow than L-fast populations. (3) Variation in the proportion of gravid females, in turn, depended on annual variation in prey availability, and its effect on lambda(s) was 4 23 times greater in M-slow than L-fast populations. In addition to differences in stochastic dynamics between ecotypes, we also found higher mean mortality rates across all age classes in the L-fast populations. Our results suggest that both deterministic and stochastic selective forces have affected the evolution of divergent life-history traits in the two ecotypes, which, in turn, affect population dynamics. M-slow populations have evolved life-history traits that buffer fitness against direct effects of variation in reproduction and that spread lifetime reproduction across a greater number of reproductive bouts. These results highlight the importance of long-term demographic and environmental monitoring and of incorporating temporal dynamics into empirical studies of life-history evolution.     

Adult sex ratio affects divorce rate in the monogamous endoparasite Schistosoma mansoni

“Divorce” (mate switching) rate is known to vary largely both between and within socially monogamous species. Although the adult sex ratio can have an important influence on mating patterns, very few studies have investigated the influence of sex ratio on divorce rate in monogamous species, and even less so from an experimental point of view. In addition, most studies on the causes and consequences of divorce have been performed on vertebrate species, whereas data for invertebrate monogamous species remain scarce. Schistosoma mansoni is a monogamous endoparasite with a complex life cycle characterized by asexual reproduction in the intermediate host and sexual reproduction in the definitive host. In the wild, populations of S. mansoni inside their definitive hosts are characterized by a male-biased sex ratio. We studied the influence of experimentally varying the adult sex ratio on divorce rate in S mansoni, using controlled infections of hosts with clonal populations. The more male-biased the sex ratio was, the more the divorce rate increased, whereas no such effect was observed under a female-biased sex ratio. In this study and for the first time, we showed, by handling the sex ratio, that the divorce rate increases in adult male-biased sex ratio conditions in a monogamous species.     

Inbreeding Depression in a Captive Wolf (Canis lupus) Population

Abstract. Uncertainty currently exists regarding the extent to which mammalian carnivores suffer from inbreeding depression. In particular, it has been proposed that wolves and species with a similar social structure are adapted to close inbreeding. Empirical data, however, are scarce. This paper provides strong evidence against the contention that natural populations of wolves are resistant to inbreeding depression. We analyzed studbook data of a captive wolf population bred in Scandinavian zoos and found negative effects of inbreeding expressed as reductions in juvenile weight, reproduction, and longevity. The occurrence of an apparently bereditary form of blindness is also associated with inbreeding. Different effects of inbreeding can be attributed to genes originating from different founder pairs, thus indicating that alleles that are deleterious in the homozygous state are fairly common in natural wolf populations.     

Allee effect limits colonization success of sexually reproducing zooplankton

Understanding the dynamics of populations at low density and the role of Allee effects is a priority due to concern about the decline of rare species and interest in colonization/invasion dynamics. Despite well-developed theory and observational support, experimental examinations of the Allee effect in natural systems are rare, partly because of logistical difficulties associated with experiments at low population density. We took advantage of fish introduction and removal in alpine lakes to experimentally test for the Allee effect at the whole-ecosystem scale. The large copepod Hesperodiaptomus shoshone is often extirpated from the water column by fish and sometimes fails to recover following fish disappearance, despite the presence of a long-lived egg bank. Population growth rate of this dioecious species may be limited by mate encounter rate, such that below some critical density a colonizing population will fail to establish. We conducted a multi-lake experiment in which H. shoshone was stocked at densities that bracketed our hypothesized critical density of 0.5-5 copoepods/m3. Successful recovery by the copepod was observed only in the lake with the highest initial density (3 copepods/m3). Copepods stocked into small cages at 3000 copepods/m3 survived and reproduced at rates comparable to natural populations, confirming that the lakes were suitable habitat for this species. In support of mate limitation as the mechanism underlying recovery failure, we found a significant positive relationship between mating success and density across experimental and natural H. shoshone populations. Furthermore, a mesocosm experiment provided evidence of increased per capita population growth rate with increasing population density in another diaptomid species, Skistodiaptomus pallidus. Together, these lines of evidence support the importance of the Allee effect to population recovery of H. shoshone in the Sierra Nevada, and to diaptomid copepods in general.     

Soil nitrogen availability and herbivore attack influence the chemical defenses of an invasive plant (Linaria dalmatica; Plantaginaceae)

Chemical defenses are thought to contribute to the invasion success and impacts of many introduced plants; however, for most of these species, little is known about these compounds and how they vary in natural environments. Plant allelochemical concentrations may be affected by a variety of abiotic and biotic factors, including soil nutrients and herbivores. Moreover, such quantitative variation is likely to play an important role in species interactions involving these invasive plants. The purpose of this study was to examine patterns of variation in iridoid glycoside concentrations of the invasive plant Linaria dalmatica (Plantaginaceae). We conducted a greenhouse experiment to investigate the effect of soil nitrogen availability on iridoid glycoside concentrations. Results from this experiment showed that plant iridoid glycoside concentrations decreased with increased nitrogen availability. Additionally, plants were collected from multiple field sites in order to characterize the influence of population, soil nitrogen availability, and herbivore attack on iridoid glycoside variation. Results from field studies indicated that plants demonstrated considerable seasonal variation, as well as variation within and among populations, with iridoid glycoside concentrations ranging from approximately 1 to 15% dry weight. The relationship between soil nitrogen and plant iridoid glycosides varied among populations, with a strong negative correlation in one population, a marginally significant negative relationship in a second population, and no relationship in the remaining two populations. Additionally, we found a negative relationship between iridoid glycoside concentrations and plant injury by an introduced biocontrol agent, the stem-mining weevil Mecinus janthinus (Cucurlionidae). These results show that plant allelochemical concentrations can vary widely in natural environments and suggest that levels of plant defense may be reduced by increased soil nitrogen availability and herbivore attack in this invasive plant species.     

Experimental Demonstration of an Allee Effect in American Ginseng

Abstract: Harvesting of wild American ginseng (   Panax quinquefolius ) for the herbal trade has lowered natural population sizes. We tested for reproductive limitation due to small population size (a form of the Allee effect) by experimentally planting "natural" populations numbering 4, 16, and 64 using 4-year-old cultivated plants. Plant size traits and reproductive traits ( bud, flower, green fruit, and mature fruit) were recorded through the ensuing summer. Fruit production per flower and per plant increased in proportion to flowering population size (  p = 0.0063 and p = 0.0017, respectively), strongly suggesting that an Allee effect occurs in very small populations. The increase in fruit production was not explained by either plant or inflorescence size differences. Although population size-dependent pollination, through insufficient pollinator visitation rate or pollen transfer rate, seems the most likely cause of the observed effects, our limited observations of pollinators were not sufficient to demonstrate a change in pollination rates as a function of population size. Knowledge of the presence as well as the mechanism underlying this Allee effect may be especially useful for management and determination of minimum viable population size of the species in the wild.     

Microsatellite Analysis of Population Structure in the Endangered Hawaiian Monk Seal

Abstract: The endangered Hawaiian monk seal breeds at six locations in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands. To determine whether significant genetic differentiation exists among these sites, we used microsatellite loci to examine the monk seal population structure at the five largest breeding colonies. Of 27 loci isolated from other seal species, only 3 were polymorphic in an initial screening of one individual from each breeding site. Only two alleles were found at each of these 3 loci in samples of 46–108 individuals. This extremely low variation is consistent with other measures of genetic variability in this species and is probably the result of a recent severe population bottleneck, combined with a long-term history of small population sizes. Although the smallest monk seal subpopulation in this study ( Kure Atoll) showed some evidence of heterozygote deficit, possibly indicative of inbreeding, the next smallest ( Pearl and Hermes Reef) had an apparent excess of heterozygous individuals. Genetic differentiation was detected between the two subpopulations at extreme ends of the range ( Kure and French Frigate Shoals). This trend was significant only at the microsatellite locus for which we had the largest sample size ( Hg6.3: R _ST = 0.206, p = 0.002; allelic goodness of fit G _h = 15.412, p < 0.005). French Frigate Shoals is the source population for translocated animals that have been released primarily at Kure Atoll. Differentiation between these sites consisted of allele frequency differences (with the same allele predominant in each location at all three loci), rather than the preservation of alternative alleles. Although the translocations have had positive demographic effects, we recommend continued genetic monitoring of both the source and recipient populations because translocated individuals are now entering the breeding population.