Nitrogen and phosphorus removal in an airlift intermittent circulation membrane bioreactor

A new airlift intermittent circulation integrated bioreactor was developed for simultaneous nitrogen and phosphorus removal of wastewater, in which, circulation of mixed liquid between mixing zone and aeration zone was realized by aeration power, alternately anaerobic/anoxic bio-environment in mixing zone was realized by intermittent circulation and simultaneous nitrogen and phosphorus removal was obtained through strengthened denitrifying phosphorus removal process. Removal performance of the reactor was investigated and pollutant removal and transfer mechanism in one operation circle was analyzed. The experiment results indicated that under the influent condition of chemical oxygen demand (COD) concentration of 642.1 mg/L, total nitrogen (TN) of 87.4 mg/L and PO₄^3--P of 12.1 mg/L, average removal efficiencies of COD, TN and PO₄^3--P reached 96.4%, 83.2% and 90.5%, respectively, with the hydraulic residence time of 22 hr and operation circle time of 185 min. Track studies indicated that the separation of aeration and mixing zones and intermittent circulation of mixed liquid between the two zones provided distinct biological environments spatially and temporally, which ensured the occurrence of multifunctional microbial reactions.     

基于ABR-MBR组合工艺不同进水C/N比对反硝化除磷性能的影响机制

基于厌氧折流板反应器(ABR)微生物相分离及膜生物反应器(MBR)高效截留的特性,通过加设硝化液回流与污泥回流实现了ABR-MBR一体化反应器的循环联动,对连续流条件下调控进水COD浓度及COD/TN比条件下的反硝化除磷影响机制展开了研究.结果表明在5个不同进水C/N比下,ABR-MBR组合工艺最终出水溶解性PO_3-4-P平均浓度分别为0.22、0.34、0.39、0.42和2.45 mg·L~(-1),低C/N比可获得更好的除磷效果,而C/N为4.8~6.0时,工艺对COD、TN和溶解性PO_3-4-P去除率分别在87%、76%和93%以上.此外,在C/N为3.6~6.0时,ABR缺氧吸磷量与工艺对TN去除量呈良好的线性关系,提高进水C/N比有助于系统对TN的去除.最终获得进水C/N比为6时最有利于氮和磷的同步去除.     

间歇曝气连续流反应器同步硝化反硝化除磷

采用连续流反应器处理生活污水,保持厌氧段格室为3格,将缺氧段格室从2格减少至0格,好氧段格室由5格逐渐增加至7格,Run1时对好氧段格室采用连续曝气,Run2～Run4时采用间歇曝气.曝/停比分别为:40 min/20 min、40 min/30min、40 min/40 min,硝化液回流比从150%逐渐减少至0%. Run4时,平均进水COD、NH+4-N、TN、PO_4~(3-)-P浓度分别为259. 34、60. 26、64. 42、6. 10 mg·L-1,出水COD、NH+4-N、TN、PO_4~(3-)-P分别为26. 40、1. 03、5. 84、0. 30 mg·L-1.反应器对氮素的去除量从Run1时的192. 30 mg·h-1逐渐增加至Run4时的244. 00 mg·h-1,相应地去除率从65. 40%逐渐增大至95. 30%;从Run1～Run4,反硝化聚磷菌和聚磷菌的活性分别从36. 05%和38. 20%增大至140. 50%和133. 40%;通过间歇曝气在连续流反应器中实现了同步硝化反硝化除磷脱氮,为污水处理厂提标改造提供参考.     

间歇曝气对垂直潜流人工湿地脱氮效果的影响

采用单级垂直潜流湿地处理城镇污水厂沉砂池出水,通过提高湿地出水水位控制淹没水深作为缺氧区;并在湿地反应柱下部安装穿孔曝气管,从而在湿地上部创造好氧环境.通过优化间歇曝气的曝气时间与间歇时间比例(间歇曝气比例)以及间歇曝气周期两个参数来提高湿地脱氮效率.结果表明,随着间歇曝气比例增大,湿地对COD和NH~+_4-N的去除率逐渐升高,而TN去除率有先升高后下降的趋势,当曝气比例为3∶1时,缺氧段污水碳氮比(C/N)值达到4.8,TN去除率达到最高为62.1%,较连续曝气提高了12.7%,出水质量浓度为15.8 mg·L~(-1).随着间歇曝气周期的延长,出水DO质量浓度逐渐降低,COD和NH~+_4-N去除率也逐渐降低,TN去除率在周期为6 h时达到最大为65.5%,当曝气周期超过湿地缺氧段水力停留时间时,TN去除率迅速下降.     

厌氧/好氧SPNDPR系统实现低C/N城市污水同步脱氮除磷的优化运行

为了解同步短程硝化内源反硝化除磷(SPNDPR)系统的脱氮除磷特性,以低C/N城市污水为处理对象,采用延时厌氧(180 min)/好氧运行的SBR反应器,通过联合调控曝气量和好氧时间,考察了该系统启动与优化运行特性.结果表明,当系统好氧段曝气量为0. 8 L·min~(-1),好氧时间为150 min时,出水PO_4~(3-)-P浓度约为1. 5 mg·L~(-1)左右,出水NH_4~+-N和NO_3~--N浓度由10. 28 mg·L~(-1)和8. 14 mg·L~(-1)逐渐降低至0 mg·L~(-1)和2. 27 mg·L~(-1),出水NO_2~--N浓度逐渐升高至1. 81 mg·L~(-1);当曝气量提高至1. 0 L·min~(-1)且好氧时间缩短至120min后,系统除磷、短程硝化性能逐渐增强,但总氮(TN)去除性能先降低后逐渐升高,最终出水PO_4~(3-)-P、NH_4~+-N分别稳定低于0. 5 mg·L~(-1)和1. 0 mg·L~(-1),好氧段亚硝积累率和SND率分别达98. 65%和44. 20%,TN去除率达79. 78%. SPNDPR系统内好氧段好氧吸磷、反硝化除磷、短程硝化、内源反硝化同时进行保证了低C/N污水的同步脱氮除磷.     

不同曝气强度下SBMBBR和SBR脱氮除磷性能对比研究

对比考察了不同曝气强度下序批式活性污泥反应器(SBR)和序批式移动床生物膜反应器(SBMBBR)的脱氮除磷效果,并分析了反应器单个周期内有机物、氮和磷的转化过程.实验结果表明,SBMBBR和SBR脱氮主要是基于好氧段发生的同步硝化反硝化(SND)及进水、搅拌阶段发生的缺氧反硝化途径实现的,而除磷是基于常规生物除磷和反硝化除磷过程而完成.曝气强度会影响SBR和SBMBBR好氧阶段SND发生的程度,最佳曝气强度下两者通过SND作用去除的TN量分别达到去除总量的47.7%和79.0%.在采用先行厌氧的运行方式,保持系统内高浓度微生物,使反应器在进水C/N比只有2.2～3.5的条件下均取得了良好的脱氮除磷效果.两者相比,SBMBBR和SBR在COD和NH4-N去+除方面没有差异,而SBMBBR的反硝化、除磷效果更优,TN、TP去除率分别达到95.4%和93.5%,较SBR分别高出10.9%和4.1%.     

基于优质碳源提供的CAMBR复合工艺短程硝化-反硝化除磷研究

挥发性脂肪酸(VFA)是反硝化除磷过程可以利用的优质碳源,为此本研究结合厌氧折流板反应器(ABR)微生物相分离和膜生物反应器(MBR)出水水质优良的特性,构建了CAMBR复合工艺,并通过优化ABR水力停留时间(HRT)等运行条件以提供优质碳源,实现高效反硝化除磷.研究表明,当ABR的HRT为4.8 h时,可获得充足的VFA作为优质碳源,并实现消耗VFA的量为56.1 mg·L~(-1)的同时获得10.43 mg·L~(-1)的释磷,即释放1 mg磷需要的VFA量为5.38 mg,同时实现12.35 mg·L~(-1)的吸磷,而MBR池的吸磷为1.33 mg·L~(-1).短程硝化除磷过程中,缺氧消耗1 mg PO_4~(3-)-P需要0.62 mg的NO-x-N,吸收1 mg PO_4~(3-)-P所需NO_2~--N的量为1.67~2.04 mg.系统出水水质稳定,COD、TN和溶解性PO_4~(3-)-P的平均去除率分别为91%、84%和93%,出水平均浓度分别为30、7.15和0.55 mg·L~(-1),表明CAMBR复合工艺生在处理生活污水过程中可获得稳定高效的反硝化除磷效果.     

后置短程反硝化AOA-SBR工艺实现低C/N城市污水的脱氮除磷

为了解厌氧/好氧/缺氧(A/O/A)运行的序批式反应器(SBR)中,强化生物除磷(EBPR)与同步短程硝化反硝化(SPND)耦合,并后置短程反硝化的脱氮除磷特性,以低C/N(≤4)城市污水为处理对象,通过优化曝气量和缺氧时间,实现了低C/N城市污水的深度脱氮除磷.结果表明,当好氧段曝气量由1.0 L·min-1降至0.6 L·min-1,缺氧时间为180 min时,出水PO3-4-P浓度由0.06 mg·L~(-1)降至0,出水NH+4-N、NO-2-N和NO-3-N浓度分别由0.18、18.79和0.08 mg·L~(-1)逐渐降低至0、16.46和0.05 mg·L~(-1),TN去除率由72.69%提高至77.97%;随着曝气量的降低,SPND现象愈加明显,SND率由19.18%提高至31.20%;此后,当缺氧段时间由180 min逐渐延长至420 min,出水PO3-4-P、NH+4-N和NO-3-N浓度分别维持在0、0和0.03 mg·L~(-1)左右,出水NO-2-N低至3.06 mg·L~(-1),SND率达32.21%,TN去除性能逐渐提高,TN去除率高达99.42%,实现了系统的深度脱氮除磷.     

Denitrifying phosphorus removal in a step-feed CAST with alternating anoxic-oxic operational strategy

A bench-scale cyclic activated sludge technology (CAST) was operated to study the biological phosphorus removal performance and a series of batch tests was carried out to demonstrate the accumulation of denitrifying polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (DNPAOs) in CAST system. Under all operating conditions, step-feed CAST with enough carbon sources in influent had the highest nitrogen and phosphorus removal efficiency as well as good sludge settling performance. The average removal rate of COD, NH₄⁺-N, PO₄³⁻ -P and total nitrogen (TN) was 88.2%, 98.7%, 97.5% and 92.1%, respectively. The average sludge volume index (SVI) was 133 mL/g. The optimum anaerobic/aerobic/anoxic (AOA) conditions for the cultivation of DNPAOs could be achieved by alternating anoxic/oxic operational strategy, thus a significant denitrifying phosphorus removal occurred in step-feed CAST. The denitrification of NOx− -N completed quickly due to step-feed operation and enough carbon sources, which could enhance phosphorus release and further phosphorus uptake capability of the system. Batch tests also proved that polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs) in the step-feed process had strong denitrifying phosphorus removal capacity. Both nitrate and nitrite could be used as electron acceptors in denitrifying phosphorus removal. Low COD supply with step-feed operation strategy would favor DNPAOs accumulation.     

间歇式曝气生物滤池对焚烧垃圾渗滤液深度脱氮的研究

为了提高焚烧垃圾渗滤液深度处理的脱氮效率,构建并启动了间歇式曝气生物滤池(IABF).在曝气阶段停止进水、停曝阶段进水的运行方式下,考察了曝气停曝时间比、运行周期、水力停留时间、碳氮比和气水比对反应器脱氮效率的影响.结果表明,在曝气停曝时间比为1:1,运行周期为1h,水力停留时间8h,COD/TN为4:1,气水比5:1的条件下,IABF取得最佳脱氮效率,平均出水TN可达到19.39 mg·L-1,NH4+-N为9.48 mg·L-1.TN和NH4+-N的平均去除率分别为87.5％和84.1％,出水水质达到《生活垃圾填埋场污染控制标准(GB16889-2008)》.     

进水C/N对SNEDPR系统脱氮除磷的影响

为了解同步硝化内源反硝化系统(SNEDPR)脱氮除磷性能,采用延时厌氧(180 min)/低氧(溶解氧0. 5～2. 0 mg·L~(-1))运行的SBR反应器,以人工配置的模拟废水为处理对象,先采用恒定进水C/N(为10),以实现SNEDPR的启动和聚磷菌(PAOs)的富集培养,再调控进水C/N值(分别为10、7. 5、5和2. 5),考察不同C/N对系统的脱氮除磷性能的影响.结果表明,当进水C/N为10,可实现SNEDPR的启动与深度脱氮除磷,出水PO3-4-P和总氮(TN)浓度分别平均为0. 1 mg·L~(-1)和8. 1mg·L~(-1),PO3-4-P去除率、TN去除率和SNED率平均值分别为99. 79%、89. 38%和58. 0%.当进水C/N由5提高至10时,系统维持良好的脱氮除磷性能,释磷量(PRA)和SNED率分别由16. 0 mg·L~(-1)和48. 0%提高至24. 4 mg·L~(-1)和69. 2%;当C/N为10时,TN和PO3-4-P去除率最高达94. 5%和100%;当C/N为2. 5时,系统失去脱氮、除磷性能,PRA和SNED率仅为1. 36 mg·L~(-1)和10%.在系统稳定运行阶段(C/N为10、7. 5和5),SNED率达85. 9%,出水NH_4~+-N、NO-x-N和PO3-4-P浓度平均为0、8. 1和0. 1 mg·L~(-1).     

MBR与SMBR脱氮除磷特性及膜污染控制

为提高污水深度处理效能和工艺运行的稳定性,研究以序批式膜生物反应器(SMBR)与传统膜生物反应器(MBR)为对象,对比研究其脱氮除磷特性、缺氧时间对工艺效率的影响及膜污染控制策略,同时应用分子生物学技术对两种工艺中微生物群落结构和组成进行分析.结果表明,间歇曝气能强化系统脱氮,使SMBR工艺去除总氮效果优于MBR,而在氨氮、总磷、COD、浊度去除方面两者无明显差异,去除率分别为94%、78%、80%、97%.延长SMBR工艺缺氧时间对COD、氨氮去除无显著影响,降低了总氮、总磷的去除率,总氮去除率由61%下降到46%,总磷由74%下降到52%.采用间歇曝气和投加一定浓度的粉末活性炭(PAC)均有利于减缓膜污染.微生物群落分析发现,两种工艺中微生物群落结构和组成无显著差异,硝化螺菌属(Nitrospira)和脱氯单胞菌属(Dechloromonas)为系统中的高丰度功能菌群,为工艺高效运行提供了生物学基础.     

生物滞留对城市地表径流磷的去除途径

根据武汉城市地表径流水文变化以及磷污染特征,通过1 a模拟运行监测,研究了生物滞留种植植物(狼尾草)、设置饱和带对城市地表径流溶解性磷(PO3-4-P)去除的影响及去除途径.结果表明,生物滞留采用75%河砂与25%当地黄棕壤混合基质,对地表径流PO3-4-P的平均去除率可达到90%以上.生物滞留种植狼尾草可显著降低出水PO3-4-P浓度.生物滞留设置饱和带可进一步提高对PO3-4-P的去除,不影响出水TP浓度.生物滞留通过基质吸附去除地表径流中的磷,表现为0~22.5 cm基质剖面中植物有效磷的增加,约占试验期间进水磷负荷的50%.从生物滞留系统磷输入(进水)与输出(出水与植物地上部分)角度分析,种植狼尾草一个生长周期地上部分吸收的磷可占进水磷负荷57.1%~76.1%,定期收割植物地上部分可作为城市地表径流磷可持续管理的主要途径.     

亚硝酸盐不同生成方式对短程硝化反硝化除磷颗粒系统的影响

为了探究亚硝酸盐生成方式对短程硝化反硝化除磷颗粒系统的影响,采用2组同规格SBR反应器分别在连续和间歇曝气方式下使亚硝酸盐连续生成和间歇生成,考察其运行过程中脱氮除磷效果、污泥物理特性和微生物群落结构.结果表明,亚硝酸盐间歇生成后随即消耗,具有更好和更稳定的脱氮除磷性能,特别在TN去除上,第72 d后TN平均去除率为92.07%.碳源利用效率（以P/COD计）集中在0.21~0.22mg·mg^-1,碳源利用充分,进一步促进反硝化除磷.颗粒粒径分布集中,大小均匀,具有规则的形状和清晰的边界.微生物群落分析表明,亚硝酸盐间歇生成的系统微生物群落丰富度和多样性更高,同时富集了更多DPAOs菌属（Dechloromonas和Pseudomonas）,与Nitrosomonas共同作用使短程硝化与反硝化除磷达到动态平衡,实现系统稳定运行.     

氧化沟不同曝气模式对氮磷去除性能的优化与比较

采用轮流搅拌-曝气SBR系统模拟氧化沟的运行方式,探讨分点曝气和分段曝气对氮磷的去除效果.结果表明,在供气量相同的条件下,分点曝气系统溶氧效率高,一个循环的好氧区比分段曝气系统长,但是分段曝气溶解氧(DO)的有效利用率(用于除氮除磷)高,二者硝化能力相当,氨氮(NH4+-N)去除率分别为96.68%和97.03%,硝化菌活性(以NH4+-N/MLVSS计)分别为4.65和4.66 mg.(g.h)-1.在缺氧区和好氧区比例皆为1时,分点曝气在2、4、7个分区时总氮(TN)去除率分别为60.14%、47.93%和33.7%;总磷(TP)去除率分别为28.96%、23.75%和24.31%,即分区越少,对TN和TP的去除皆有利,但是更利于TN的去除;而分段曝气只有1个分区,其TN和TP的去除率分别为64.21%和49.09%,分段曝气对氮磷的去除效果优于分点曝气,但对提高TP的去除率更有利.对于分段曝气,在满足硝化效果的前提下,增大缺氧区与好氧区的比例,氮磷的去除效率增加.当缺氧区与好氧区的比例由1∶1增大至1.8∶1,其TN和TP的去除率分别提高到73.94%和54.18%.继续增加缺氧区的比例,将影响硝化和运行的稳定,从而影响氮磷的去除效果.     

除磷颗粒诱导的同步短程硝化反硝化除磷颗粒污泥工艺

以低C/N比生活污水为研究对象,接种成熟除磷颗粒污泥,通过联合调控好氧时间及曝气强度成功将其诱导成具有同步短程硝化反硝化除磷功能的颗粒污泥,并分析了此过程中系统脱氮除磷特性变化.结果表明,好氧段曝气强度为5L·(h·L)~(-1),在较短曝气时间下(140 min)可实现AOB的富集,但同步硝化反硝化能力难以提高;降低曝气强度为3. 5L·(h·L)~(-1),延长曝气时间(200 min),好氧段氮损增加.根据pH及DO曲线进一步优化曝气时长抑制NO_2~-向NO_3~-转化,优化后系统出水TP 0. 5 mg·L~(-1)和TN 15 mg·L~(-1),可实现氮磷的同步去除.在系统功能由单纯的除磷向同步脱氮除磷转化的过程中,释磷量下降,PAOs在内碳源储存过程中的贡献比例有所下降,但仍占主体地位(60%).批次实验表明,颗粒中可利用NO_2~-为电子受体的DPAOs占绝大部分达52. 43%,其富集减轻了系统的碳源压力,从而改善脱氮除磷效果.     

不同曝气量和好氧时间下SPNDPR系统处理低C/N城市污水的脱氮除磷性能

以低C/N城市污水为处理对象,采用延时厌氧(180min)/好氧运行的SBR反应器,通过调控曝气量[单位体积的反应器在单位时间内通过的气体的体积,单位为L·(min·L)~(-1).由0. 125 L·(min·L)~(-1)逐渐降低至0. 025 L·(min·L)~(-1)]和好氧时间(由3 h逐渐延长至6 h),考察了SPNDPR系统的深度脱氮除磷性能.结果表明,当曝气量为0. 025 L·(min·L)~(-1)、好氧时间为6 h时,SPNDPR系统出水NH_4~+-N、NO_2~--N、NO_3~--N和PO_4~(3-)-P浓度分别为0、8. 62、0. 06和0. 03 mg·L~(-1);出水TN浓度约为9. 22 mg·L~(-1),TN去除率高达87. 08%.当曝气量分别由0. 125 L·(min·L)~(-1)降至0. 100 L·(min·L)~(-1)和由0. 100L·(min·L)~(-1)降至0. 075 L·(min·L)~(-1)时,系统硝化速率均能恢复并稳定维持在0. 16 mg·(L·min)~(-1)左右.但曝气量继续降至0. 050 L·(min·L)~(-1)和0. 025 L·(min·L)~(-1)后,硝化速率分别降至0. 09 mg·(L·min)~(-1)和0. 06 mg·(L·min)~(-1)左右.随着曝气量的降低[由0. 125 L·(min·L)~(-1)依次降至0. 100、0. 075、0. 050、0. 025 L·(min·L)~(-1)]和好氧时间的延长(由3 h延长至6h),SPND脱氮性能逐渐增强,SND率由19. 57%升高至72. 11%,TN去除率逐渐升高(由62. 82%升高至87. 08%).降低曝气量和延长好氧时间后的SPNDPR系统,强化了厌氧段内碳源贮存与好氧段好氧吸磷、反硝化除磷、短程硝化、内源反硝化等过程的进行,实现了低C/N城市污水的深度脱氮除磷.     

Effect of artificial aeration on the performance of vertical-flow constructed wetland treating heavily polluted river water

Three lab-scale vertical-flow constructed wetlands (VFCWs), including the non-aerated (NA), intermittently aerated (IA) and continuously aerated (CA) ones, were operated at different hydraulic loading rates (HLRs) to evaluate the effect of artificial aeration on the treatment efficiency of heavily polluted river water. Results indicated that artificial aeration increased the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations in IA and CA, which significantly favored the removal of organic matter and NH₄⁺-N. The DO grads caused by intermittent aeration formed aerobic and anoxic regions in IA and thus promoted the removal of total nitrogen (TN). Although the removal efficiencies of COD_Cr, NH₄⁺-N and TN in the three VFCWs all decreased with an increase in HLR, artificial aeration enhanced the reactor resistance to the fluctuation of pollutant loadings. The maximal removal efficiencies of COD_Cr, NH₄⁺-N and total phosphorus (TP) (i.e., 81%, 87% and 37%, respectively) were observed in CA at 19 cm/day HLR, while the maximal TN removal (i.e., 57%) was achieved in IA. Although the improvement of artificial aeration on TP removal was limited, this study has demonstrated the feasibility of applying artificial aeration to VFCWs treating polluted river water, particularly at a high HLR.     

低碳源条件下改良双污泥系统脱氮除磷优化研究

在低碳源废水条件下,通过对改良后的双污泥处理工艺与传统厌氧-好氧-缺氧工艺效果进行比较分析,探究解决城市生活污水碳源不足的方法.实验组反应器为改良型双污泥系统,即在原双污泥系统缺氧段增加两个阶段的微曝气(曝气量0.5 L·min~(-1)),对照组反应器为多级厌氧-好氧-缺氧SBR.结果表明,进水COD、氨氮、SOP浓度分别为200、35、10 mg·L-1时,实验组比对照组脱氮除磷效果好(去除率分别为:TN 94.8%与60.9%;TP 96.5%与75%),出水SOP浓度0.35 mg·L-1,NH+4-N浓度0.50 mg·L-1,TN浓度1.82 mg·L-1,完全满足《城镇污水处理厂污染物排放标准》(GB 18918-2002)一级A标准.采用优化后的工艺,单位碳源(以COD计)可实现的最大的氮、磷的去除量分别为0.17 g·g-1和0.048 g·g-1,可以最大程度地解决当前城市废水碳源浓度较低的问题.     

Anoxic phosphorus removal in a pilot scale anaerobic-anoxic oxidation ditch process

The anaerobic-anoxic oxidation ditch (A²/O OD) process is popularly used to eliminate nutrients from domestic wastewater. In order to identify the existence of denitrifying phosphorus removing bacteria (DPB), evaluate the contribution of DPB to biological nutrient removal, and enhance the denitrifying phosphorus removal in the A²/O OD process, a pilot-scale A²/O OD plant (375 L) was conducted. At the same time batch tests using sequence batch reactors (12 L and 4 L) were operated to reveal the significance of anoxic phosphorus removal. The results indicated that: The average removal efficiency of COD, NH₄⁺, PO₄³⁻, and TN were 88.2%, 92.6%, 87.8%, and 73.1%, respectively, when the steady state of the pilotscale A²/O OD plant was reached during 31–73 d, demonstrating a good denitrifying phosphorus removal performance. Phosphorus uptake took place in the anoxic zone by poly-phosphorus accumulating organisms NO₂⁻ could be used as electron receptors in denitrifying phosphorus removal, and the phosphorus uptake rate with NO₂⁻ as the electron receptor was higher than that with NO₃⁻ when the initial concentration of either NO₂⁻ or NO₃⁻ was 40 mg/L.