Institutionalising social learning: Towards systemic and adaptive governance

This paper critically examines how public policy makers limit policy and other institutional design choices by a failure to appreciate (i) how situations may be characterised or framed; (ii) how practices that generate neologisms (invented terms or concepts) or reify (make into a thing) abstract concepts can displace understandings, and (iii) the epistemological bases of governance mechanism choices. An inquiry into the coining of the neologisms ‘wicked’ and ‘tame’ problems is reported and the implications for research and policy practice explored. As practices, neologising, reifying, categorising and typologising have unintended consequences – they remove us from the primary experiences and underlying emotions that provided the motivation for formulating these concepts in the first place. The failure to institutionalise the understandings and experiences that sit behind the invention of the terms ‘wicked’ and ‘tame’ problems (or similar framing choices such as ‘problematique’, ‘messes’, ‘lowland real-life swamps’, ‘resource dilemmas’ or ‘complex adaptive systems’) present systemic constraints to institutionalising social learning as an alternative yet complementary governance mechanism within an overall systemic and adaptive governance framework. Ultimately situations usefully framed as ‘wicked’,’ such as water managing and climate change are problems of relationship – of human beings with the biosphere. Re-framings, such as institutions as social technologies and other research and praxis traditions concerned with the breakdown of relationships may offer ways forward in the purposeful designing and crafting of more effective institutions.     

Commercial development of energy—environmentally sound technologies for the auto-industry: the case of fuel cells

The economic importance of energy and environmental issues is continuously increasing, affecting both process and product design in business. The energy crisis in California in 2001 made this basic issue universal. New technologies are expected to reduce pollution derived both from production processes and products, with costs that are still unknown and in competition with more mature technologies high. Nevertheless, until now there is still little, but growing knowledge concerning the process of technological innovation in the fields of energy and environment.In this paper we analyze the development of zinc air fuel cell (ZAFC) and its transfer from a research laboratory to potential mass production. ZAFC are a new ‘environmentally sound technology’, proven to have commercial value, that can be used for substituting internal combustion engines (ICEs) and meeting zero emission vehicles (ZEV) regulations. Although ZAFC performances are higher than traditional electric batteries ones, commercial costs are still high. Hence the pathway to mass production may come from stationary application of fuel cells for power.In contrast to the conventional ‘paradigmatic’ approach, we argue that the existing economic and organizational literature concerning technological innovation is not able to fully explain steps followed in commercializing energy—environmentally sound technologies. Existing models mainly consider adopting problems, which are due to market uncertainty, weak application, lack of a dominant design, and problems in reconfiguring existing organizational routines. Above all ‘market power’ exists in terms of control over technological innovation and its commercial application. Barriers are erected that prevent new technologies such as fuel cells from becoming adapted. Through pro-active government intervention, such as the case in California, new advanced technologies can move rapidly into the marketplace.From this discussion we draw some conclusions and issues for further research concerning policy making for sustaining the process of technological transfer and firms’ strategies in technological innovation.     

Values,rules and knowledge: Adaptation as change in the decision context

Responding to global change represents an unprecedented challenge for society. Decision makers tend to address this challenge by framing adaptation as a decision problem, whereby the responses to impacts of change are addressed within existing decision processes centred on defining the decision problem and selecting options. However, this ‘decision-making perspective’ is constrained by societal values and principles, regulations and norms and the state of knowledge. It is therefore unsuitable for addressing complex, contested, cross-scale problems. In this paper we argue that simply broadening the decision-making perspective to account for institutions and values is not enough. We contend the decision-making perspective needs to be connected with a broader ‘decision-context perspective’ that focuses on how the societal system of decision processes affects the manner in which a particular problem is addressed. We describe the decision context as an interconnected system of values, rules and knowledge (vrk). The interaction of systems of vrk both creates and limits the set of practical, permissible decisions; the types of values, rules and knowledge that influence the decision and the capacity for change and transformation in the decision context. We developed a framework to analyse the interactions between values, rules and knowledge and their influence on decision making and decision contexts of adaptation initiatives, and applied it retrospectively to three projects on adaptation to sea-level rise. Our analysis revealed: (1) specific examples of how interactions between vrk systems constrained existing framings of decision making and the development of options for coastal adaptation; (2) limitations in the adaptive management strategies that underpinned the projects and (3) how the linked systems of vrk can allow adaptation practitioners to structure adaptation as a process of co-evolutionary change that enables a broader set of social issues and change processes to be considered. Adaptation projects that focus on the decision context represent a pragmatic alternative to existing decision-focused adaptation. By using the vrk model to diagnose constraints in decision processes, we show how the reframing of adaptation initiatives can reveal new approaches to developing adaptation responses to complex global change problems.     

Design for remanufacture: a literature review and future research needs

‘Design for Remanufacture’ or DfRem, is an area of remanufacturing research that has received relatively high levels of interest in recent years, due to the recognition that a product’s design may have a high impact on remanufacturing efficiency. However, the overall volume of literature dedicated to DfRem is low and there is still much to learn about the subject. The purpose of this literature review is to collate the current body of literature and establish a contemporary understanding of DfRem through analysing the trends, agreements and conflicts of opinion in the field. Much of the DfRem literature to date is focused upon the investigation of remanufacturing problems associated with product design, and the subsequent development of design methods and tools, either specifically developed to aid DfRem or as adaptations of existing design methods. These methods and tools vary in purpose and intended use but all largely remain within the academic realm to date. Within the literature there is widespread agreement that any approach to DfRem must consider both product and process, yet the ‘design for X’ definition of the task continues to spark debate. The key problems and issues that future DfRem research should address have been identified in this paper, from both within the literature and from the current gaps in the literature. Some key recommendations for future research include the need for ‘lifecycle thinking’ within design method development and the need for greater exploration into the organisational factors affecting DfRem integration into the design process, from the perspectives of the OEM and designer.     

Knowledge brokerage designs and practices in four european climate services: A role model for biodiversity policies?

Environmental policies are broadly claimed to rely on sound scientific evidence because of the complexity, the uncertainty and the diverging political stakes that characterize issues like biodiversity decline or climate change. Classical advisory formats like assessments or standing advisory bodies have proliferated widely – especially at the global and national levels – yet exert only a limited influence on political decision-making, particularly in sub-national and local implementation contexts. Against this background, scholars have called for ‘bottom-up’ approaches to Science-policy interfaces that move from ‘problem to policy’. In the area of climate change, numerous ‘climate services’ have evolved at national, sub-national and even local levels, with the promise of being more decision-oriented. Four climate services in three European countries (the United Kingdom, Germany and Switzerland) are investigated regarding whether and how they institutionalize and enact knowledge brokerage in a credible, salient and legitimate way. Focusing on the institutional and strategic design principles of this advisory setting in climate policy, insights are generated for the biodiversity policy field, where comparable settings are still broadly lacking.     

Product service systems as systemic cures for obese consumption and production

Many environmental and social problems emerged from our modern production and consumption habits are comparable with the symptoms of physical obesity. Based on this metaphor, effective approaches in obesity treatment can serve as a good reference in order to respond to over-consumption problems. Instead of stressing consumers to change their behaviours, we can attract them by means of providing appropriately designed PSS offers and giving them the opportunities to become aware of better alternatives. Successful examples seem to document support for the hypothesis that, ‘the multidimensional and dynamic approaches are the most promising diet solutions, which can lead to a leaner production and consumption figure.’     

Adopting and applying eco-design techniques: a practitioners perspective

This paper discusses the findings of a small scale research project which explored the possibility of adopting eco-design techniques. The paper focuses on identifying how eco-design techniques can be determined as being compatible with new product development processes. Via the development of a five stage ‘applicability framework’, this study demonstrates how a compatible suite of tools can be identified for application to product development processes. Testing and validation of this ‘applicability framework’, which was used to identify three key eco-design techniques; namely checklists, guidelines, and a material, energy and toxicity (MET) matrix, is shown to have taken place in relation to the development of a lightweight chemical detector product. It is established that checklists, guidelines and the MET matrix can be used both on a specific product, and also more generally in the design process. In particular, the MET matrix is shown as being used to successfully identify key environmental aspects of the product during its lifetime. The paper concludes by arguing that eco-design techniques may not have been more widely adopted by businesses because such methods are not necessarily generic and immediately applicable, but instead require some form of process-specific customisation prior to use, which can in turn act as a barrier to adoption. It is also highlighted that the shear diversity of pressures that come to bear during the product development process can also act as a barrier to adoption, and that the full integration of eco-design techniques will have to encompass approaches which overcome such pressures.     

The ISO 14001 certification of a machine-process

Some process machines in industrial manufacturing can be defined machine-process: their operations can be analysed by several points of view independently from the larger manufacturing process where they are included. For a machine-process, an Ems—Environmental management system can be set up and the ISO 14001 certification reached in an ‘earlier application’ way, with the involvement of both supplier/manufacturer and client/user. The ‘earlier certification’ of machine-processes adds new contents to the product, linked to the environment, helping the market of ‘clean technologies’, and fosters the diffusion of ISO 14001 certification among supplying/manufacturing companies and clients/users whose entire process is not yet certified.A case study is presented that has been experienced in Italy. The ‘offer and design’ phase of a port mobile shiploader is completely developed by following the ‘earlier application’ scheme for ISO 14001 certification of a machine process—introduced and explained in the paper. Achieved results are shown, and the perspective of a complete application of the scheme to the following ‘detailed design and assembly’ and ‘operations’ phases of the same machine are outlined. The feasibility of such a new application of ISO 14000 standards is proved, together with its advantages, while the readiness of the market for the new sector of earlier certification of machine-processes is highlighted.     

Governance of sustainable transitions: about the 4(0) ways to change the world

Transitions are radical system innovations that usually take 1–2 generations. Using Cultural Theory as a heuristic, this paper presents four archetypical approaches to transition management. The fatalist approach refrains from transition management (motto: ‘First, disaster must happen’). The system is in a stalemate that no experiment or hierarchy can break; external events must bring the window of opportunity for change. The hierarchic approach relies on a dominant actor coalition to steer change (motto: ‘Let's put a man on the moon!’). The individualist approach relies mainly on changing the financial ground rules (motto: ‘Sustainability through the market’). Finally, the egalitarian approach relies on process management, doing experiments, etc. (motto: ‘A good transition arena will solve it all’). This approach makes sense if the situation is not clear enough to be managed via one of the other approaches, and there is a clearly identifiable learning objective.     

Contexualising the tool development process through a knowledge brokering approach: The case of climate change adaptation and agriculture

This article applies a ‘knowledge brokering’ approach to contextualise the development of an integrated computer modelling tool into the real world policy context of adaptation of agriculture to climate change at the EU level. In particular, the article tests a number of knowledge brokering strategies described and theorised in the literature, but seldom empirically tested. The article finds that while the policy context can be used to identify a theoretically informed knowledge brokering strategy, in practice a strategy's ‘success’ is more informed by practical considerations, such as whether the tool development process is knowledge or demand driven. In addition, in practice the knowledge brokering process is found to be dynamic and messy, which is not always apparent in the literature. The article goes on to question the perception that there is always a need (or a desire) to bridge the gap between researchers and policy makers in the tool development process. Rather than a problem of design and communication, the science policy interface may be characterised more by a high level of competition between researchers and research organisations to have their tool legitimised by its use in the policy making process.     

Anatomy of a buzzword: The emergence of ‘the water-energy-food nexus’ in UK natural resource debates

The existence of a water-energy-food ‘nexus’ has been gaining significant attention in international natural resource policy debates in recent years. We argue the term ‘nexus’ can be currently seen as a buzzword: a term whose power derives from a combination of ambiguous meaning and strong normative resonance. We explore the ways in which the nexus terminology is emerging and being mobilised by different stakeholders in natural resource debates in the UK context. We suggest that in the UK the mobilisation of the nexus terminology can best be understood as symptomatic of broader global science-policy trends, including an increasing emphasis on integration as an ideal; an emphasis on technical solutions to environmental problems; achievement of efficiency gains and ‘win-wins’; and a preference for technocratic forms of environmental managerialism. We identify and critique an ‘integrative imaginary’ underpinning much of the UK discourse around the concept of the nexus, and argue that attending to questions of power is a crucial but often underplayed aspect of proposed integration. We argue that while current efforts to institutionalise the language of the nexus as a conceptual framework for research in the UK may provide a welcome opportunity for new forms of transdisciplinary, they may risk turning nexus into a ‘matter of fact’ where it should remain a ‘matter of concern’. In this vein, we indicate the importance of critique to the development of nexus research.     

Decision making in environmental matters

After a very brief introductory discussion of various approaches to the theory of decision-making (utility analysis, multiple perspectives, holistic approach) this paper introduces the idea of ‘neg-decision’ or ‘neg-option’, i.e. the analysis of the attributes of the opposite option, as a possible auxiliary for obtaining a comparable set of utility attributes.The use of the bifurcation (or ‘catastrophe theory’) in decision-making is also explored. The possible use of catastrophe theory and neg-decision are exemplified on hand of environmental decision making and cost-benefit analysis.     

Identifying robust response options to manage environmental change using an Ecosystem Approach: A stress-testing case study for the UK XXX

A diverse range of response options was evaluated in terms of their utility for sustaining ecosystem services in the UK. Robustness of response options was investigated by applying a ‘stress-testing’ method which evaluated expected performance against combined scenarios of socioeconomic and climate change. Based upon stakeholder feedback, a reference scenario representing current trends in climate and socioeconomic drivers (‘business-as-usual’) was used as a dynamic baseline against which to compare results of other scenarios. The robustness of response options was evaluated by their utility in different environmental and social contexts as represented by the scenarios, and linked to their adaptability to adjust to changing conditions. Key findings demonstrate that adaptability becomes increasingly valuable as the magnitude and rate of future change diverges from current trends. Stress-testing also revealed that individual responses in isolation are unlikely to be robust meaning there are advantages from integrating cohesive combinations (bundles) of response options to maximise their individual strengths and compensate for weaknesses. This identifies a role for both top-down and bottom-up responses, including regulation, spatial targeting, incentives and partnership initiatives, and their use in combination through integrated assessment and planning consistent with the adoption of an Ecosystem Approach. Stress-testing approaches can have an important role in future-proofing policy appraisals but important knowledge gaps remain, especially for cultural and supporting ecosystem services. Finally, barriers and enablers to the implementation of more integrated long-term adaptive responses were identified drawing on the ‘4 Is’ (Institutions, Information, Incentives, Identity) conceptual framework. This highlighted the crucial but usually understated role of identity in promoting ownership and uptake of responses.     

Considering agro-ecosystems as ecological funds for collective design: New perspectives for environmental policy

Enhancing agro-ecosystem sustainability raises difficult challenges for environmental policy: it requires both increasing knowledge on these complex systems to design effective solutions and coordinating stakeholders with diverging interests. However, most existing environmental policies consider ecosystems’ desirable properties as given, leading ecosystem managers to favor “turnkey” solutions. How could public policy better support local collective initiatives aiming at reconciling agriculture and the environment? This paper presents an empirical case study from western France, in which a partnership between an agricultural cooperative and an ecological research center resulted in a collective design initiative. We conceptually model this initiative drawing upon recent design theories and Georgescu-Roegen’s ‘fund-flow’ model, defining ‘ecological funds’ as the starting point of a collective design process. The results highlight the importance of developing policy instruments that can better support local innovation processes through greater democratization. Adopting a design approach to sustainable agricultural landscape management could be particularly fruitful in situations where collective action is necessary but where there is no common good recognized as such, and no existing community identified.     

Local Air Quality Management policy and practice in the UK: The case for greater Public Health integration and engagement

The UK’s Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) regime is designed to protect people’s health from the ill-effects of air pollution, but it is failing to achieve its full potential. The Public Health aspects of, perspectives on, and integration and engagement in, LAQM have been poorly considered to date. This critical literature review assessed LAQM-related strengths and limitations in order to explore how Public Health, through greater integration and engagement, can add value to the regime.‘Structure’ and ‘process’ weaknesses were identified, including: a poorly defined Public Health role, a narrowly-scoped prescribed process, risk assessment uncertainties, ineffective communications, shallow evaluations and disconnected policies. Separately and cumulatively, these have hindered Public Health integration in LAQM policy and practice and stunted the regime's evolution. Engaging Public Health in LAQM future design and delivery can help solve these problems, by improving risk assessments and raising awareness of air pollution and other health-influencing relationships, targeting action in high-need areas, coordinating air pollution mitigation and health improvement interventions, and connecting different policy areas.Increasing Public Health integration and engagement in LAQM can enhance the existing regime. Acting now is timely from both LAQM and Public Health perspectives. This review's findings should be used to inform debates and decisions around the future development of Local Air Quality Management arrangements both in the UK and beyond.     

Divergent perspectives on water resource sustainability in a public–policy–science context

Diverging perspectives toward environmental problems, their causes, and solutions can exacerbate controversy in participatory decision making. Past research has examined the lay–expert divide in perceptions about diverse risks, but relatively few studies have examined multidimensional perspectives on water scarcity across expert groups with different knowledge systems. We address this gap by examining conflicting perspectives across ‘lay’ residents and academic and policymaking ‘experts’ in Phoenix, AZ. We analyze ecological concern about water issues, risk perceptions regarding the factors contributing to scarcity, and policy attitudes pertaining to resource management alternatives. All three groups expressed substantial concern for broad-scale water issues, especially drought. Residents exhibited a heightened tendency to blame other people for water scarcity, in addition to opposition toward stringent approaches such as water pricing. While strongly supporting the acquisition of more supplies, policymakers exhibited lower concern about regional water use rates while displacing blame away from anthropogenic causes compared to both residents and academic experts. Scientists, on the other hand, stressed the need for stricter regulation of water demand. Findings point to the challenges of meshing different knowledge systems for collaborative research and policy making.     

Governance structures for social-ecological systems: Assessing institutional options against a social residual claimant

Rural areas face increasing pressures to deliver both private and public goods from land management. Multiple stakeholders seek different outcomes and there is substantial heterogeneity in values. Trade-offs, synergies and complementarities exist between different services and alternative bundles of goods. The resulting complex social-ecological systems (SES) therefore require adaptive co-management. In a governance context, no single organisation has oversight across the variety of interests involved, but the challenge remains as to how these interests can best be balanced and negotiated, to deliver socially beneficial outcomes. This paper analyses how this might be achieved by considering the perspective of a ‘social residual claimant’ (SRC). The SRC, as an ideal type, represents the ultimate ‘owner’ or steward of an ecosystem which sets the criteria to assess alternative outcomes, identifying best approaches and addressing uncertainty through adaptive management. A SRC cannot be a static construct, but must interact with and influence private land-holders and other stakeholders, adjusting actions as circumstances change. We identify the criteria that would be required in order for an SRC to act in the best interests of society. We then make a comparison of these criteria against the conditions applying in three contrasting approaches currently operating in the UK: National Parks, Landscape Partnerships and Nature Improvement Areas. This enables us to identify the differences between approaches and to suggest changes that could enhance capabilities, as well as ideas for further research. We suggest that the ideal of an SRC offers a simple method of benchmarking that has potential application across a wider range of different local contexts, beyond the UK.     

Coastal climate hazards and urban planning: how planning responses can lead to maladaptation

Urban planning has the potential to be a powerful tool for facilitating efficient and equitable adaptation to climate change-related coastal hazards (‘coastal climate hazards’). However, if urban planning measures are poorly designed or implemented, it can increase costs and vulnerability, and unfairly affect the interests of particular groups. Through a case study on the coastal climate hazard planning framework in Victoria, Australia, this paper aims to illustrate how urban planning measures can lead to maladaptation and draw lessons for the future design and implementation of planning responses. Five main policy lessons are drawn from the case study. First, planning frameworks should encourage the adoption of robust approaches that are as insensitive to the uncertainties associated with coastal climate hazards as possible. Secondly, policy makers need to be mindful of the opportunity costs and equity implications of planning responses. Thirdly, to be sustainable, planning responses must be robust to social and political factors, something that can be achieved through the use of flexible approaches that allow continued use and development of land but on conditions that protect the interests of governments and communities. Fourthly, policy makers need to be mindful of transaction costs. Finally, when devolving planning responsibilities to lower levels of government, policy makers need to ensure that the objectives of planning frameworks are clear, there is minimal ambiguity in decision guidelines, and that the resourcing and capacity constraints of planning bodies are appropriately considered.     

Characterizing the change of land-use based on flora: application for EIA and LCA

The environmental impact of land-use can be expressed in terms of a change in biodiversity of flora. We present two models that characterize the negative effects of land-use: a model on the basis of species richness; a model on the basis of the rarity of ecosystems and their vascular plants. Each of those models may serve in the EIA (environmental impact assessment) of the urban and rural planning of expanding cities, industrial areas, road infrastructure, etc. Moreover, these models might be applied by Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) practitioners to incorporate the aspect of land-use in the environmental assessment of a specific product design. The results of both models have been applied in practice. Maps of The Netherlands are provided for both models. The map based on the rarity of ecosystems differentiates the best of what experts (biologists and ecologists) define as botanical quality of nature; the methodology is operational in The Netherlands and might be applied to other countries as well, however, detailed botanical information is required. The map based on species richness has a weaker compliance with the botanical quality of nature, however, the model can more easily be applied to a wider area of the world, since indicative data about species richness is available on a global scale. The so called ‘eco-costs of land conversion’ is proposed as a single indicator, being the marginal costs of prevention (or compensation) of the negative environmental effects on biodiversity caused by change of land-use. These ‘eco-costs of land conversion’ for the botanical aspects are part of the much broader model of the eco-costs/value ratio, which has recently been published in this journal [Vogtländer et al., Journal of Cleaner Production 2002;10:57–671].     

“一带一路”沿线国家碳排放:外商直接投资与发展要素的共同影响分析

“一带一路”倡议下,推动绿色低碳发展,共建碳达峰、碳中和目标下国际合作共赢的生态圈,已经成为“一带一路”沿线国家的共识. 本文基于“一带一路”沿线国家1997—2018年的面板数据,通过逐步回归、异质性分析和门槛回归方法探究外商直接投资(FDI)的碳排放效应. 结果显示:①“一带一路”沿线国家FDI显著增加碳排放,体现出“污染天堂”效应. ②我国提出的“一带一路”倡议注重绿色低碳发展,削弱了“一带一路”沿线国家FDI对碳排放的“污染天堂”效应,体现出我国在环境治理特别是应对气候变化方面发挥的引领示范作用. ③经济发展可削弱FDI对碳排放的“污染天堂”效应,然而经济快速发展特别是工业发展可显著增加碳排放. ④政策、创新和发展三类机制均导致FDI的碳排放效应发生显著变化,其中发展机制影响最大,创新机制的碳减排效果相对稳定. ⑤强化环境规制促进了FDI的“污染光环”效应,“一带一路”倡议则推动“一带一路”沿线各国加强了环境规制. 研究显示,为促进“污染光环”效应形成,应深化绿色“一带一路”,利用来自中国投资的低碳化特征,增加与中国的投资往来并提高负有环境责任FDI的比例. “一带一路”沿线各国也应加强绿色低碳科技创新,在此基础上协同政策、创新和发展三类机制,引导FDI投向绿色低碳领域. 此外,还应综合运用环境准入机制和环境经济手段,实现高质量发展.