Development of the lateral line mechanoreceptors in the catfish Silurus glanis

In fish the neuromasts of the lateral line develop as follows: a “migrating primordium” (MP) migrates from the postotic placode along the future posterior lateral line canal to the tail fin. Its placodal cells are assumed to be the basis for the development of the neuromasts. However, an MP was not found in all fish, e.g., in catfish. In the present study, a search was made for the MP in the larvae of the catfish Silurus glanis. Using light and electron microscopy, an MP was found to migrate along the ventral rim of the tail. It precedes the formation of a ventral row of free neuromasts. An MP preceding the main lateral row of the future canal neuromasts was not found. The necessity of the MP for the ventral-free neuromast development is shown by making incisions which block its migration. The result: caudal to the incision site neuromasts do not develop. On the other hand, the same incision procedure applied to the assumed migration route of a—hypothetical—lateral MP does not block the development of the lateral neuromasts. It is concluded that in this case an MP is not necessary for the development of the canal neuromasts.     

Living in a “stethoscope”: burrow-acoustics promote auditory specializations in subterranean rodents

Subterranean mammals rely to a great extent on audition for communication and to be alerted to danger. The only hitherto published report on burrow acoustics revealed that in tunnels of blind mole-rats (Spalax ehrenbergi), airborne sounds of 440 Hz propagated best whereas lower and higher frequencies were effectively attenuated. Morpho-functional analyses classify the ear of subterranean mammals as a low-sensitivity and low-frequency device. Concordantly, hearing is characterized by low sensitivity and a restricted frequency range tuned to low frequencies (0.5–4 kHz). Some authors considered the restricted hearing in subterranean mammals vestigial and degenerate due to under-stimulation. In contrast to this view stand a rich (mostly low-frequency) vocal repertoire and progressive structural specializations of the middle and inner ear. Thus, other authors considered these hearing characteristics adaptive. To test the hypothesis that acoustical environment in burrows of different species of subterranean mammals is similar, we measured sound attenuation in burrows of Fukomys mole-rats (formerly known as Cryptomys, cf. Kock et al. 2006) of two differently sized species at different locations in Zambia. We show that in these burrows, low-frequency sounds (200–800 Hz) are not only least attenuated but also their amplitude may be amplified like in a stethoscope (up to two times over 1 m). We suggest that hearing sensitivity has decreased during evolution of subterranean mammals to avoid over-stimulation of the ear in their natural environment. We dedicate this work to Mathias Kawalika, who died in March 2006.     

Discrimination of flicker frequency rates in the reptile tuatara (Sphenodon )

By investigating the mechanisms that underlie the perception of environmental cues, we may begin to understand how the sensory system governs behavioral responses. This is the first empirical study to examine learning and visual sensitivity in a reptile species, the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). We established a non-intrusive psychophysical method by employing an instrumental paradigm in order to examine discrimination learning and the ability to distinguish different flicker frequencies in the tuatara. Seventeen tuatara were trained under an operant conditioning task to respond to various discriminative stimuli flickering between 2.65 and 65.09 Hz. Tuatara were able to learn the operant task and discriminate between a constant light and flicker frequency rates between 2.65 and 45.61 Hz, but not at 65.09 Hz. We demonstrated a reliable psychophysical method where these reptiles could learn a basic operant task and discriminate visual stimuli in the form of flicker frequency rates. The tuatara’s ability to perceive flickering light is comparable to that of avian, mammalian, and other reptilian species. This method is thus suitable for more comprehensive examinations of vision and additional sensory abilities in other reptiles. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Changes in earth’s dipole

The dipole moment of Earth’s magnetic field has decreased by nearly over the past 150 years and by about 30% over the past 2,000 years according to archeomagnetic measurements. Here, we explore the causes and the implications of this rapid change. Maps of the geomagnetic field on the core–mantle boundary derived from ground-based and satellite measurements reveal that most of the present episode of dipole moment decrease originates in the southern hemisphere. Weakening and equatorward advection of normal polarity magnetic field by the core flow, combined with proliferation and growth of regions where the magnetic polarity is reversed, are reducing the dipole moment on the core–mantle boundary. Growth of these reversed flux regions has occurred over the past century or longer and is associated with the expansion of the South Atlantic Anomaly, a low-intensity region in the geomagnetic field that presents a radiation hazard at satellite altitudes. We address the speculation that the present episode of dipole moment decrease is a precursor to the next geomagnetic polarity reversal. The paleomagnetic record contains a broad spectrum of dipole moment fluctuations with polarity reversals typically occurring during dipole moment lows. However, the dipole moment is stronger today than its long time average, indicating that polarity reversal is not likely unless the current episode of moment decrease continues for a thousand years or more.     

Physical conditions for trapping air by a microtrichia-covered insect cuticle during temporary submersion

The intertidal midge Clunio, which reproduces on exposed rocky seashores, becomes enclosed in an irregularly shaped air bubble during short submersion by incoming waves. This water-repellent property of Clunio’s cuticle is caused by a complete cover of hydrophobic microtrichia offering an effective surf tolerance. These microtrichia not only trap a thin air layer above the cuticle but also maintain a larger air bubble between the insect’s ventral side and legs. The effectiveness of the water repellence was quantitatively characterised on the basis of a known model (Crisp and Thorpe, Discuss Faraday Soc 3:210–220, 1948). The parameters of the model are the contact angle θ (>90°) at the contact line of air/water/microtrichia and the distance between individual microtrichia and their radius. When the microtrichia are 1.1 μm apart and have a radius of 0.1 μm and an estimated contact angle θ of 140°, the air layer is stable against hydrostatic pressures of up to 3 m water column. As shown by a modified version of the model, considerably larger air bubbles can be trapped by the microtrichia cover of the legs up to distances of 0.5 mm from the body. The widely spaced (about 8 μm apart) and longer setae of Clunio are not involved in the formation of air layers and air bubble.     

Body mass dependence of glycogen stores in the anoxia-tolerant crucian carp (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Carassius carassius</Emphasis> L.)

Glycogen is a vital energy substrate for anaerobic organisms, and the size of glycogen stores can be a limiting factor for anoxia tolerance of animals. To this end, glycogen stores in 12 different tissues of the crucian carp (Carassius carassius L.), an anoxia-tolerant fish species, were examined. Glycogen content of different tissues was 2–10 times higher in winter (0.68–18.20% of tissue wet weight) than in summer (0.12–4.23%). In scale, bone and brain glycogen stores were strongly dependent on body mass (range between 0.6 and 785 g), small fish having significantly more glycogen than large fish (p < 0.05). In fin and skin, size dependence was evident in winter, but not in summer, while in other tissues (ventricle, atrium, intestine, liver, muscle, and spleen), no size dependence was found. The liver was much bigger in small than large fish (p < 0.001), and there was a prominent enlargement of the liver in winter irrespective of fish size. As a consequence, the whole body glycogen reserves, measured as a sum of glycogen from different tissues, varied from 6.1% of the body mass in the 1-g fish to 2.0% in the 800-g fish. Since anaerobic metabolic rate scales down with body size, the whole body glycogen reserves could provide energy for approximately 79 and 88 days of anoxia in small and large fish, respectively. There was, however, a drastic difference in tissue distribution of glycogen between large and small fish: in the small fish, the liver was the major glycogen store (68% of the stores), while in the large fish, the white myotomal muscle was the principal deposit of glycogen (57%). Since muscle glycogen is considered to be unavailable for blood glucose regulation, its usefulness in anoxia tolerance of the large crucian carp might be limited, although not excluded. Therefore, mobilization of muscle glycogen under anoxia needs to be rigorously tested.     

Waterproof and translucent wings at the same time: problems and solutions in butterflies

Although the colour of butterflies attracts the most attention, the waterproofing properties of their wings are also extremely interesting. Most butterfly wings are considered “super-hydrophobic” because the contact angle (CA) with a water drop exceeds 150°. Usually, butterfly wings are covered with strongly overlapping scales; however, in the case of transparent or translucent wings, scale cover is reduced; thus, the hydrophobicity could be affected. Here, we present a comparative analysis of wing hydrophobicity and its dependence on morphology for two species with translucent wings Parantica sita (Nymphalidae) and Parnassius glacialis (Papilionidae). These species have very different life histories: P. sita lives for up to 6 months as an adult and migrates over long distance, whereas P. glacialis lives for less than 1 month and does not migrate. We measured the water CA and analysed wing morphology with scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. P. sita has super-hydrophobic wing surfaces, with CA > 160°, whereas P. glacialis did not (CA = 100–135°). Specialised scales were found on the translucent portions of P. sita wings. These scales were ovoid and much thinner than common scales, erect at about 30°, and leaving up to 80% of the wing surface uncovered. The underlying bare wing surface had a remarkable pattern of ridges and knobs. P. glacialis also had over 80% of the wing surface uncovered, but the scales were either setae-like or spade-like. The bare surface of the wing had an irregular wavy smooth pattern. We suggest a mode of action that allows this super-hydrophobic effect with an incompletely covered wing surface. The scales bend, but do not collapse, under the pressure of a water droplet, and the elastic recovery of the structure at the borders of the droplet allows a high apparent CA. Thus, P. sita can be translucent without losing its waterproof properties. This characteristic is likely necessary for the long life and migration of this species. This is the first study of some of the effects on the hydrophobicity of translucency through scales’ cover reduction in butterfly wings and on the morphology associated with improved waterproofing. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

汞在小浪底水库的赋存形态及其时空变化

为了解小浪底水库汞的赋存状况,采用冷原子荧光光谱法测定了小浪底水库水体、表层沉积物、沉积物间隙水以及鱼类肌肉样品中的总汞,采用乙基化衍生-气相色谱-原子荧光法测定了上述样品中的甲基汞,进而分析了小浪底水库鱼体中汞的富集状况.结果表明,小浪底水库水体中丰、枯水期总汞浓度分别为0.71~1.42 ng·L-1和0.90~2.49 ng·L-1,均符合国家地表水环境质量标准(GB 3838-2002)一类水汞浓度标准限值,水样中未检出甲基汞.丰、枯水期沉积物中总汞浓度分别为51.74~90.42 ng·g-1和95.66~172.52 ng·g-1,甲基汞浓度分别为0.09~0.26 ng·g-1和0.18~0.39 ng·g-1,甲基汞浓度较低,这可能与水体底层溶解氧浓度较高以及沉积物中有机碳浓度较低有关.丰、枯水期沉积物间隙水总汞浓度分别为4.27~9.49 ng·L-1和5.46~41.04 ng·L-1,甲基汞浓度分别为0.09~0.99 ng·L-1和0.07~1.01 ng·L-1,间隙水中总汞和甲基汞浓度明显高于上覆水体,与水体间存在汞浓度梯度,可能存在从沉积物间隙水向水体中的扩散.鱼体肌肉总汞浓度在43.47~304.98 ng·g-1之间,甲基汞浓度为10.77~265.23 ng·g-1,甲基汞低于食品安全国家标准规定的污染物限量(GB 2762-2012)(非肉食性鱼500 ng·g-1和肉食性鱼1 000 ng·g-1).水库鱼体总汞的生物富集系数分别为鳙鱼1.3×105,梭鱼9.3×104,鲫鱼4.7×104,白条5.0×104,黄颡鱼1.7×105,弓鱼3.9×104.     

基于EFDC模型的水乡城镇水网水动力优化调控研究

河流的水动力状态与整体水环境状况息息相关.本研究以同里古镇区水系为例,在数据稀缺,尤其是缺乏水质数据的基础上,通过研究区域实地考察、现场监测、文献调研等方式,确定了研究区域合理的生态流速范围.同时,建立了同里古镇区水系的EFDC水动力模型,并采用情景分析法,对古镇区水系8种不同的调水优化情景进行分析评价.结果表明,当进水泵站以0.42 m3·s~(-1),饮马桥同时以0.5 m3·s~(-1)的流量进水,大东溪桥和会川桥出流口各出流10%,外河闸口出流口出流80%,其余出流口不出流的情况下,同里古镇区水系整体水动力改善条件较好,且大部分河段流速维持在0.05~0.10 m·s~(-1)之间,在同里古镇水系合理的生态流速范围内.这一方案不仅能有效改善同里古镇水系整体水动力状态,且对水质状况的改善,对整体水环境的提升具有良好的促进作用.     

水动力条件对藻类生理生态学影响的研究进展

湖泊和水库等水体富营养化通常会引起藻类水华暴发. 已有较多研究总结了光照、温度、营养盐等环境因素对藻类水华发生的影响方面的进展,但缺乏对水动力因素影响藻类生理生态学乃至水华发生等方面的研究总结. 本文通过梳理水动力条件对藻类生长、种群结构的影响及其作用机制,以及临界流速和人工混合对藻类的影响等方面的研究发现:在藻类生理学方面,水动力条件主要影响藻类的生长、细胞形态、营养盐吸收、光合作用活性和酶活性的变化;在藻类生态学方面,不同藻类对应的临界流速有所差异,水动力条件的变化会导致优势种之间的转变;人工混合使局部水体藻细胞密度降低进而改善水质. 对今后的研究热点进行展望:后续仍需进一步研究水动力条件对藻类生理的影响,不仅是酶活性和相关物质的吸收,还应包含胶被、产毒特性和基因序列等方面;应用于实际湖库的临界流速、水体扰动方式、扰动时间、扰动频率和最佳深度的探究,旨在推进藻类水华控制、保障水质安全等方面的相关研究.      

Bees use three-dimensional information to improve target detection

Bumblebee detection of a flat circular disc (two-dimensional (2D) presentation) and a disc which was presented 10 cm in front of a structured background (and thus provided three-dimensional (3D) cues) was compared. A dual choice test using a Y-maze apparatus was conducted to estimate the minimum visual angle at which the bees were able to detect the disc. At large visual angles of 15, 10 and 5° bees’ performance between the 2D and the 3D presentation did not differ. However, when the disc subtended 3° at the bee’s eye, the bees performed significantly better when 3D information was available. Overall, bees were able to detect a target subtending a 40% smaller visual angle when it was presented in front of the structured background compared to a 2D presentation. This suggests that previous reports on the limits of target detection in bees using flat stimuli might have underestimated the bees’ ability to locate small flowers under natural conditions. Bees use motion parallax, i.e. the apparent relative motion of a stationary object against a background, for perceiving the third dimension. Our data suggest that bumblebees can integrate information from at least two types of feature detectors, motion and area, to improve single target detection.     

Water input requirements of the rapidly shrinking Dead Sea

The deepest point on Earth, the Dead Sea level, has been dropping alarmingly since 1978 by 0.7 m/a on average due to the accelerating water consumption in the Jordan catchment and stood in 2008 at 420 m below sea level. In this study, a terrain model of the surface area and water volume of the Dead Sea was developed from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission data using ArcGIS. The model shows that the lake shrinks on average by 4 km²/a in area and by 0.47 km³/a in volume, amounting to a cumulative loss of 14 km³ in the last 30 years. The receding level leaves almost annually erosional terraces, recorded here for the first time by Differential Global Positioning System field surveys. The terrace altitudes were correlated among the different profiles and dated to specific years of the lake level regression, illustrating the tight correlation between the morphology of the terrace sequence and the receding lake level. Our volume-level model described here and previous work on groundwater inflow suggest that the projected Dead Sea–Red Sea channel or the Mediterranean–Dead Sea channel must have a carrying capacity of >0.9 km³/a in order to slowly re-fill the lake to its former level and to create a sustainable system of electricity generation and freshwater production by desalinization. Moreover, such a channel will maintain tourism and potash industry on both sides of the Dead Sea and reduce the natural hazard caused by the recession.     

Water jet guided laser as an alternative to EDM for micro-drilling of fuel injector nozzles: A comparison of machined surfaces

To characterize the inner surface of the fuel injector nozzle holes drilled by EDM and water jet guided laser drilling (Laser Micro-Jet) a specifically conceived scanning probe microscopy technique with true non-contact operating mode was used. A difference in morphology of the drilled surfaces is evident from the acquired surface topography along the hole axis for the two compared drilling techniques. Results showed that the surface texture can be characterized by (i) maximum peak-to-valley distance and (ii) periodicity. Acquired maps confirm that electro-eroded surfaces are an envelope of craters randomly distributed with total excursion up to 1.7 μm with a crater size of 15 μm. While, the efficient melt expulsion and immediate cooling of water jet guided laser generates a peak to valley distance of 800 nm with a periodicity of 18 μm. Average R_q derived from the measured cylindrical surfaces was 450 nm and 150 nm for EDM and Laser Micro-Jet, respectively. Water jet guided laser drilling has proved to be a reliable alternative to EDM from the point of view of repeatability of the results and surface quality to facilitate the atomization of the fuel jet.     

燃煤电厂周围渔业养殖行为对水生生态环境中汞形态变化的影响

为研究燃煤电厂周围渔业养殖行为对水生生态环境中汞形态变化的影响,以浙江省象山港渔业养殖区为研究对象,对养殖区和对照区海水样品中不同形态汞浓度进行了测定.结果表明,燃煤电厂周围海域上覆水总汞浓度达到83.0 pmol·L-1±97.1 pmol·L-1.沉积物表层孔隙水中总溶解态汞随深度的下降而下降,并且10cm以上孔隙水中溶解态汞浓度显著高于10cm以下溶解态汞含量(P0.001),以上结果表明象山港海域水体中较高的汞浓度很有可能源于燃煤电厂的烟气释放.养殖区水体总汞浓度(96.5 pmol·L-1±133 pmol·L-1)高于对照区(69.5 pmol·L-1±39.4 pmol·L-1),主要源于养殖行为过程中从业人员生活污水的排放以及鱼饲料等物质在沉积物中的积累,进而向上覆水中释放.渔业养殖区孔隙水表层甲基汞(24.0pmol·L-1±16.7 pmol·L-1)浓度高于对照区(6.60 pmol·L-1±5.11 pmol·L-1),说明渔业养殖行为造成了沉积物中有机质积累,促进了汞的甲基化.     

Imperfect chemical female mimicry in males of the ant Cardiocondyla obscurior

Winged and wingless males coexist in the ant Cardiocondyla obscurior. Wingless (“ergatoid”) males never leave their maternal colony and fight remorselessly among each other for the access to emerging females. The peaceful winged males disperse after about 10 days, but beforehand also mate in the nest. In the first 5 days of their life, winged males perform a chemical female mimicry that protects them against attack and even makes them sexually attractive to ergatoid males. When older, the chemical profile of winged males no longer matches that of virgin females; nevertheless, they are still tolerated, which so far has been puzzling. Contrasting this general pattern, we have identified a single aberrant colony in which all winged males were attacked and killed by the ergatoid males. A comparative analysis of the morphology and chemical profile of these untypical attacked winged males and the tolerated males from several normal colonies revealed that normal old males are still performing some chemical mimicry to the virgin queens, though less perfect than in their young ages. The anomalous attacked winged males, on the other hand, had a very different odour to the females. Our study thus exemplifies that the analysis of rare malfunctioning can add valuable insight on functioning under normal conditions and allows the conclusion that older winged males from normal colonies of the ant C. obscurior are guarded through an imperfect chemical female mimicry, still close enough to protect against attacks by the wingless fighters yet dissimilar enough not to elicit their sexual interest.     

Effects of clay turbidity and density of pikeperch (Sander lucioperca) larvae on predation by perch (Perca fluviatilis)

Increased turbidity reduces visibility in the water column, which can negatively affect vision-oriented fish and their ability to detect prey. Young fish could consequently benefit from high turbidity levels that can provide a protective cover, reducing predation pressure. Perch (Perca fluviatilis) are commonly found in littoral zones of temperate lakes and coastal areas of the Baltic Sea. Pikeperch (Sander lucioperca) spawn in these areas, so perch is a potential predator for pikeperch larvae. We conducted laboratory experiments to test the predation of perch on pikeperch larvae at different turbidity levels (5–85 nephelometric turbidity units), densities of pikeperch larvae (2–21 individuals l⁻¹) and volumes of water (10–45l). The logistic regression showed that the probability of larvae eaten depended significantly on turbidity and volume of water in the bags, while density of larvae was not significant. However, because container size is known to affect predation, the data was divided into two groups based on water volume (10–20 and 25–45l) to reduce the effects of container size. In either group, probability of predation did not significantly depend on volume, whereas turbidity was significant in both groups, while density was significant in larger water volumes. Thus, high turbidity impaired perch predation and protected pikeperch larvae from perch predation. Because density of larvae was also a significant factor affecting predation of perch, the dispersal of pikeperch larvae from spawning areas should also increase the survival of larvae.     

三峡库区消落带沉积物对鱼体富集汞的影响

水体环境中的汞（Hg）容易被鱼体富集.为了研究三峡库区消落带沉积物对鱼体Hg含量的影响,采用不同Hg含量的消落带沉积物进行了为期90 d的模拟淹水实验.结果表明沉积物淹水后,水体总汞（THg）和甲基汞（MeHg）含量显著增加,鱼体肌肉中THg和MeHg含量不断增加,而内脏和头部中THg和MeHg含量前期不断增加,后期则有轻微减小的趋势.肌肉对Hg的富集量大于内脏和头部,后两者的富集量没有显著性差异.与对照组（无沉积物）相比沉积物的存在明显增加了鱼体富集Hg的量,而且当沉积物中Hg含量较高时,鱼体对Hg的富集量也显著增加.鱼体各部位THg和MeHg含量变化曲线高度相似,各部位对MeHg的富集系数（bioaccumulation factors,BCF）在1.93×10⁵~8.89×10⁵之间,对无机Hg的BCF在1.3×10³~12.8×10³之间,表明鱼体所富集的Hg形态上主要为MeHg.鱼体各部位MeHg和THg含量均为极显著相关,线性回归方程表明,在富集Hg的量中,MeHg占THg比例分别为：肌肉80.1%、内脏79.3%、头部66.7%.消落带沉积物再淹水后会发生一定程度的净甲基化现象产生MeHg,由于扩散作用使水体MeHg浓度在一段时间内升高,这导致了鱼体对Hg的富集量增加.因此对三峡库区大面积消落带可能存在的Hg污染风险不可忽视.     

Rheum palaestinum (desert rhubarb), a self-irrigating desert plant

The rare plant Rheum palaestinum (Polygonaceae) is a perennial hemicryptophyte that grows during the rainy winter in desert mountainous areas in Israel and Jordan that receive an average annual rainfall of ca. 75 mm. It produces between one and four large round leaves that are tightly attached to the ground and form large rosettes of up to 1 m². These leaves differ markedly from the typical small leaves of most desert plants. Moreover, they have a unique 3D morphology resembling a scaled-down mountainous area with well-developed steep drainage systems, raising the question which selective agents were involved in their evolution. We propose that the large leaves collect rainwater that then infiltrates the soil surrounding the root. We measured the seasonal course of leaf growth, examined the area of wet soil surrounding the root after actual and simulated rain, and modeled the water harvesting capacity using the plant leaf area and the weekly precipitation. We show that even in the slightest rains, water flows above the veins to the leaf’s base where it irrigates the vertical root. A typical plant harvests more than 4,100 cm³ of water per year, and enjoys a water regime of about 427 mm/year, equivalent to the water supply in a Mediterranean climate. This is the first example of self-irrigation by large leaves in a desert plant, creating a leaf-made mini oasis. All authors contributed equally to this paper.     

Pathological alterations typical of human Tay-Sachs disease, in the retina of a deep-sea fish

 Micrographs of retinas from the deep-sea fish Cataetyx laticeps revealed visual cells containing membranous whorls in the ellipsoids of the inner segments resulting from stretching and modifications of the mitochondria membranes and their cristae. These pathological structures seem to be homologous to the whorls observed in retinas of human carriers of Tay-Sachs disease. This disease, a genetic disorder, is found in humans and some mammals. Our findings in fish suggest that the gene responsible can be found throughout the vertebrate evolutionary tree, possibly dormant in most taxa. Received: 20 April 2000 / Accepted in revised form: 16 June 2000     

Evolution of a new sense for wind in flying phasmids? Afferents and interneurons

The evolution of winged stick insects (phasmids) from secondarily wingless ancestors was proposed in recent studies. We explored the cuticle of flying phasmids for wind sensors that could be involved in their flight control, comparable to those known for locusts. Surprisingly, wind-sensitive hairs (wsH) occur on the palps of mouthparts and on the antennae of the winged phasmid Sipyloidea sipylus which can fly in tethered position only when air currents blow over the mouthparts. The present study describes the morphology and major functional properties of these “new” wsH with soft and bulging hair bases which are different from the beaker-like hair bases of the wsH on the cerci of phasmids and the wsH described in other insects. The most sensitive wsH of antennae and palps respond with phasic-tonic afferents to air currents exceeding 0.2 ms⁻¹. The fields of wsH on one side of the animal respond mainly to ventral, lateral, and frontal wind on the ipsilateral side of the head. Afferent inputs from the wsH converge but also diverge to a group of specific interneurons at their branches in the suboesophageal ganglion and can send their integrated input from wsH fields of the palps and antennae to the thoracic central nervous system. Response types of individual wsH-interneurons are either phasic or phasic-tonic to air puffs or constant air currents and also, the receptive fields of individual interneurons differ. We conclude that the “new” wsH system and its interneurons mainly serve to maintain flight activity in airborne phasmids and also, the “new” wsH must have emerged together with the integrating interneurons during the evolution from wingless to the recent winged forms of phasmids.