美国棕地治理分析及其对我国的启示

随着环境保护呼声的日益高涨,棕地受到越来越多的关注。本文在阐述棕地涵义的基础上,详细介绍了美国关于棕地的法律体系和治理流程,深刻剖析了美国棕地治理的筹资渠道和筹资政策,结合我国棕地的实际情况,给出了关于棕地治理与再开发的建议。     

Application of the analytic hierarchy process to select characterization and risk-based decision-making and management methods for hazardous waste sites

Environmental managers at U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) installations overseas are faced with the challenge of managing contaminated sites at these installations with little information on the extent of contamination or the risk posed by the site. In this regard, DoD managers overseas encounter a situation quite similar to the situation faced by decision makers in the U.S. who are managing brownfields. Innovative site characterization and risk-based decision-making methods, which are currently being developed for expeditious application at brownfield sites in the U.S., may also be appropriate for application at overseas DoD sites. In this paper, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is used by DoD decision makers to evaluate and rank innovative site characterization technologies and risk-based decision-making and management methods, for use at installations in Korea. Results indicate that for sites with high potential risk the decision makers preferred site characterization technologies that produce data of high quality and a method that can be used to establish credible risk-based remediation goals. This study provides a framework for applying characterization technologies and risk management to poorly characterized contaminated sites in developing countries, where resources for remedial actions may be limited.     

Financial adaptation to disaster risk in the European Union

Increasing losses from weather related extreme events coupled with limited coping capacity suggest a need for strong adaptation commitments, of which public sector responses to adjustments to actual and expected climate stimuli are key. The European Commission has started to address this need in the emerging European Union (EU) climate adaptation strategy; yet, a specific rationale for adaptation interventions has not clearly been identified, and the economic case for adaptation to extremes remains vague. Basing the diagnosis on economic welfare theory and an empirical analysis of the current EU and member states’ roles in managing disaster risk, we discuss how and where the public sector may intervene for managing climate variability and change. We restrict our analysis to financial disaster management, a domain of adaptation intervention, which is of key concern for the EU adaptation strategy. We analyse three areas of public sector interventions, supporting national insurance systems, providing compensation to the affected post event as well as intergovernmental loss sharing through the EU solidarity fund, according to the three government functions of allocation, distribution, and stabilization suggested by welfare theory, and suggest room for improvement.     

Relevance for decision making of spatially explicit,participatory scenarios for ecosystem services in an area of a high current demand

Participatory ecosystem services scenarios can be used to inform decision making on the sustainable or wise use of biodiversity and ecosystem services (ES). To establish the plausibility and coherency of the recently constructed Biscay participatory scenarios, and to analyze policy options for improving sustainability of land use and the supply of ecosystem services, a spatially explicit analysis of land cover change was carried out. The modelling used an innovative methodology which included feedback from key stakeholders. Our study showed that scenario mapping can be a way of testing the credibility and internal consistency of scenarios, and a methodology for making them more coherent; it was also useful for highlighting land use trade-offs. The sustainability analysis for the ES supply side showed the benefits of promoting two land use/cover trends in the Biscay region: (i) an increase of sustainable arable land in the valley zones to reinforce biocapacity and self-provisioning while preserving agroecosystems’ ES flow; and (ii) natural forest regeneration in mountainous and other zones to increase carbon storage and sequestration while enhancing biodiversity and other ES flows. We argue that even if already protected public agro-forest lands may be the best places to start promoting these changes, additional measures are needed to involve private landowners and guarantee changes at a landscape level. Finally, we reflect on the need to make complementary analyses of ES supply and demand as a way of contributing to a broad sustainability agenda.     

城市可持续性:欧洲城市改造的经验与启示

全球化和城市化使得世界城市发展面临着严重的生态环境问题与挑战,城市可持续性是解决这些问题的根本出路.本文利用欧洲城市改造的案例对城市可持续性进行了分析和研究,通过城市可持续性的原则、特点和影响因素分析,重点讨论了欧洲地方环境行动计划,以及项目特点、预算来源、战略目标、管理形式和行动计划与方案,指出切实可行的行动计划、普遍的公众参与、充足的资金来源、相关利益人的协作体、信息技术应用是城市可持续性和竞争力提升的根本保证.     

Decisive factors in the creation and execution of municipal action plans in the field of sustainable development in the European Union

The process of raising public awareness around the world concerning the need to apply criteria of sustainable development was basically set in motion at the Rio de Janeiro Summit in 1992. There it was decided that the most suitable context for fostering the process is the local level, and the Local Action Plan forms a basic element in this process.Some preliminary studies have shown the evidence of great advancement in the creation of Local Action Plans in municipalities. However, their execution is frequently paralyzed by a lack of necessary resources and suitable State policies.The aim of this paper is to verify the effect that different factors might have on the degree of progress made by the Local Action Plan in the municipalities of the European Union.The results show that the public works policies of the EU and the governments of the member states fail to impact the level of commitment of municipal governments; however, when the supporting policy originates from administrations closer to the municipality and are made concrete in the form of economic support and technical advice, they prove to be relevant. Strictly political factors, such as stability, have a more limited yet significant effect on the execution of Local Action Plans.     

英国机遇区规划对中国国土空间规划的启示

随着中国城镇化步入中后期发展阶段,以及空间规划改革与高质量发展的时代背景下,城市更新是存量时代城市空间可持续发展的关键议题。但目前还存在着城市更新在国土空间规划体系中定位不清晰等问题,如何更好地推动新时代国土空间规划衔接和融入城市更新,作为解决城市病、进行城市空间治理的有效手段亟待探索。简要梳理城市更新研究进展,以英国伦敦的大型城市更新规划—机遇区规划作为典型案例,分析机遇区规划的概念内涵、演变过程及不同类型,重点解析以金融和创新产业为重点的商业发展型、以维护和延续历史风貌为重点的文化旅游型、以棕地修复和发展绿色产业为重点的工业发展型等三种具有代表性典型机遇区规划项目。在此基础上,提出英国伦敦机遇区更新规划对中国国土空间规划的启示：在五级三类国土空间规划体系中明确城市更新的定位及编制要求与标准;以城市更新为抓手,促进城市存量空间人居环境质量与社会公平和谐;对不同类型城市以及城市不同类型地块,均需因地制宜地构建差异化的城市更新策略;借鉴基于自然的解决方案,尊重城市区域的自然资源本底和地理属性特征;延续城市历史文脉,挖掘打造地方性、有特色的城市精神。     

欧盟工业废水污染物排放限值的制定方法

依据欧盟委员会的IPPC指令和水框架指令，欧盟成员国目前在制定废水污染物排放限值时，都以最佳可得技术（BAT）为参考，同时运用反演的方法将污染物排放限值与环境质量标准相结合。阐述了欧盟国家制定废水污染物排放限值的“BAT法”和“质量标准反演法”，并举例分析了“质量标准反演法”。提出了我国借鉴欧盟方法的几点建议。     

Linking analyses and environmental Kuznets curves for aggregated material flows in the EU

The relationship between economy and environmental impacts has been an essential topic in the discussion on environmental problems for a long time. From the 1990s, this relationship has gained a position in environmental policy as well. De-coupling the use of natural resources from economic growth has been set as one of the policy goals in the sixth Environmental Action Programme by the European Commission. In the scientific discussion, the concept of environmental Kuznets curve deals closely with the de-coupling or de-linking phenomenon. Aggregated material flows, on the other hand, have often been considered as a macro-level proxy of environmental degradation. Different methods or approaches have been designed for “sustainability” or “carrying capacity” evaluation as well. The objective of this article is (i) to discuss the possibilities and limitations of using environmental and economic indicators in the sustainability analysis at the macro level, (ii) to present a theoretical framework for the linking analysis including a classification of the degrees of de-linking/re-linking environmental impacts from/to economic growth, and (iii) to give an empirical example by using indicators of direct material flows as a proxy of environmental degradation and by applying the framework into the European Union and its 15 member countries. The results show that the trend in the European Union is a weak de-linking of material flows from economic growth during the years 1980–2000. In other words, material intensity of the economy has generally decreased due to increased efficiency, but the absolute amount of material use has increased, although at a lower rate of increase than economic growth. On the other hand, there is a quite large variation between different EU member countries. However, absolute decrease in the use of materials cannot be found as a continuous trend between the years 1980 and 2000 in any of the studied EU member countries.     

The European Union Solidarity Fund: an assessment of its recent reforms

After extensive flooding in 2002, the European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was created as an ex post loss-financing vehicle for EU member states and candidate countries in the case of disasters that exceed the government’s resources to cope. The EUSF is viewed as a valuable instrument for pooling risk among countries in Europe and potentially as a model for financing loss and damage from climate change in vulnerable countries worldwide. This paper assesses its future prospects taking account of reforms adopted in 2014. Our analysis is based on three recognized aims of the Solidarity Fund: its promotion of solidarity with those countries having the least capacity to cope with major disasters; its contribution to proactive disaster risk reduction and management (climate adaptation); and its robustness with regard to its risk of depletion (stress testing). Using a simulation approach for future disasters, we conclude that the reformed EUSF’s risk of depletion, although it is reasonably robust to more frequent disasters, could be reduced by increasing member state contributions and/or engaging in risk transfer. The European Commission has taken important steps in linking the fund to proactive risk reduction; yet, by changing its budgeting practices, the commission could be more proactive in encouraging risk management in member states. In its current form, the EUSF does not embed needs-based solidarity. Lower-income “new” member states have received disproportionately less compensation in terms of eligible losses, although on average, they have received more disaster aid than what they contribute to the fund. Solidarity could be enhanced by changing the rules for disbursing aid. After briefly describing alternative risk-pooling models in the Caribbean, Africa, and Europe, we suggest how design features of the EUSF as compared to other regional risk pools can inform discussions on the Warsaw International Loss and Damage Mechanism.     

中外棕地治理与再开发政策、法规的比较研究

随着工业化的发展和产业结构的调整,棕地问题日益突出,越来越受到各国政府和学者的关注。由于政策、法规对棕地治理与再开发可起到很好的引导、规范和激励等作用,它们已成为棕地问题研究的重点之一。本文对美洲和欧洲的几个国家在棕地治理和再开发方面的现行财政政策、税收政策、法律体制进行了介绍和分析,并与我国棕地治理与再开发政策、法规进行了比较。同时,对我国棕地治理与再开发的政策和法规建设提出了建议。     

Sustainable development in practice

The semi-annual European Environment Sustainable Conference in Aalborg, Denmark brought together from primarily Europe, but also other parts of the world. The Conference focused on sustainability but one panel focused on practical applications for public policy and private industry. The papers from this panel are presented in this special issue of the journal. They cover topics ranging from corporate sustainable programs to government plans including "feed in laws".Some papers are more academic oriented but clearly derived from practical political experiences such as those of the California energy crisis. These theories argue the need for "agile energy systems" whereby regions, cities and communities must have combinations of on-site or distributed energy generation like combined heat and power (CPH) along with central grid power generation. Finally, there is a clear message in all the papers that "market forces" alone do not develop, monitor or even provide "level playing fields" for communities. In short, there needs to be continuous "government" or public involvement in the sustainable communities.     

Reauthorization of CERCLA and the redevelopment of brownfields: who will pay the orphan’s share?

This paper examines significant and unjustifiable differences arising under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA, Pub. L. No. 96-510, 94 Stat. at Large 2767, codified as amended at 42 USC §§ 9601-9675) in the way in which the Superfund may be used to remediate "orphaned" National Priorities List (NPL) sites and "orphaned" brownfield sites. Under both the existing law and numerous proposals for the reauthorization of CERCLA, while the Superfund may be used for the remediation of orphaned NPL sites, it may not be used for the remediation of orphaned brownfield sites. In each situation, however, an absent, insolvent, defunct, bankrupt or judgment-proof party has created a situation in which remediation costs must be borne by the public. The study concludes that there is no fundamental policy reason for treating these orphans differently and presents recommendations to facilitate the remediation and redevelopment of both NPL sites and brownfield sites.     

Ways of reducing pesticides use in Bordeaux vineyards

French and European incentives, such as Plan Ecophyto 2018, European directive for a sustainable use of pesticides, reinforce the requirement for vine-growers to engage in more environmentally friendly farming practices. In this respect, this paper presenting the results of a large questionnaire survey conducted in Bordeaux area vineyards and focusing on the behaviour of their vine-growers towards environmental innovations is particularly adequate. Founding that the most important environmental issue in vineyards relates to the use of pesticides, the paper characterizes the main economic and cognitive factors determining vine-growers' environmental innovations. It allows determining possible policies milestones, efficient and feasible, towards a more environmentally friendly vineyard. The paper first outlines the analytical framework, then highlights the main results and, finally, goes through further discussion and policy implications.     

Sustainability criteria for bioenergy systems: results from an expert survey

Environmental impacts associated with the use of fossil fuels, rising prices, potential limitations in supply and concerns about regional and national security are driving the development and use of biomass for bioenergy, biofuels and bioproducts. However, the use of biomass does not automatically imply that its production, conversion and use are sustainable. In order to operationalize sustainability assessments of biomass systems, it is crucial to identify critical criteria, but keep their number and measurement at a manageable level. The selection of these criteria can vary depending on individual's expertise, geographical region where they work, and spatial scale they are focused on. No clear consensus has yet emerged on what experts consider as critical indicators of sustainability. Objectives of this paper were to analyze how key experts perceive the 35 sustainability criteria for bioenergy found in emerging sustainability assessment frameworks and to identify levels of agreement and uncertainty. Experts were asked to rate the criteria for attributes of relevance, practicality, reliability, and importance.Perceptions of the importance of the 35 criteria varied among the experts surveyed. Only two criteria, energy balance and greenhouse gas balance, were perceived as critical by more than half of the respondents. Social criteria and locally applied criteria were generally ranked low for all four attributes. Seven of the 12 criteria scored as most important focused on environmental issues, four were social and only one was economic. Of the 12 most important criteria, seven were ranked low in practicality and reliability indicating that mechanisms to assess a number of important criteria need to be developed. The spatial scale the experts worked at and their profession explained most of the differences in importance ranking between experts, while regional focus had minimal effect. Criteria that were ranked low for importance, were characterized by a lack of consensus, suggesting the need for further debate regarding their inclusion in sustainability assessments.Outcomes of the survey provide a foundation for further discussions and development of sustainability assessments for bioenergy systems and may also provide a basis for assessing individual bioenergy projects within their specific geographic, ecological, societal, and technological context and scale.     

The economics of greening Romania’s energy supply system

Despite the declining trends in total energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, energy intensity, and emission intensity over the past two decades, Romania still emits more greenhouse gas per unit of output than many other members of the European Union. The country is looking for further greening of its energy supply system to achieve the clean energy and climate change mitigation goals included in the European Union’s 2030 target and 2050 Roadmap. Using an energy supply optimization model, TIMES, this study develops energy supply mixes for Romania under a baseline scenario that satisfies the European Union’s current energy and climate targets for 2020, a green scenario that satisfies the European Union’s 2030 energy and climate targets, and a super green scenario that satisfies the European Union’s prospective 2050 energy road map. The study finds that although Romania could achieve the green scenario at a moderate cost, it would be challenging and costly to achieve the super green scenario.     

Regional sustainability contrasts in Brazil as indicated by the Compass of Sustainability – CompasSus

The current need for assessing sustainable processes and states is a driving assumption for this article, having as objective to present preliminary results of a new assessment approach, the Compass of Sustainability (CompasSus), applied to administrative regions of Brazil. Its methodological approach is based on a combination of existing assessment methodologies, such as the Human Development Index and the Ecological Footprint. CompasSus is elaborated under the perspective of rather complementary operational concepts of sustainable development, namely weak and strong sustainability, which are often seen as competing ones. In spite of the advances on the perspective of sustainable development perceived in international agreements for conservation of nature, as well as in the implementation of national policies aiming at sustainability, there still exists an operational ambiguity of the concept of sustainability. Thus, its fuzzy theoretical consolidation for clear definition of objectives and lines of action still leads to different assumptions for diverse stakeholders and authors. Looking at the Brazilian case, conservation strategies are needed to protect the world's largest tropical rainforest against a predatory business – as-usual frontier expansion. As for addressing trade-offs between environmental conservation and regional development demands the CompasSus introduces a combined hemispheric assessment of sustainability. In 2006, the state in which the sustainability index had the best performance was DF (Distrito Federal). This, the seat of the capital city, presents an economy based on the public and the service sectors, both very little carbon and energy intensive. Furthermore, the high income per capita, and good social indicators associated with the small relevance of the agrarian sector grants it the best sustainability index, which is determined by performances in two components representing strong and weak sustainability. In the other extreme is São Paulo (SP) where a high population density and major impacts on waterways have implied a worse performance in weak sustainability index, whereas the high consumption of energy together with high carbon emissions have also determined a low performance in strong sustainability index.     

美国"棕色区域"的治理法律介评

"棕色区域"问题是经济发展到一定阶段带来的环境问题.一些国家逐渐开始应对.棕色区域问题涉及到各种因素,如法律,税收,财产权,土地开发等多种因素,所以是一个复杂的,较难解决的问题.以起步较早的美国为例,以联邦立法为重心,论述了美国在"棕色区域"治理中的政策和法律制度,并对其进行了简要的评述.以期对这个问题有清醒的认识.棕色区域问题实质上是土壤污染的治理问题,这对中国缺位的土壤污染立法有重大的借鉴意义.     

美国“棕色区域”的治理法律介评

“棕色区域”问题是经济发展到一定阶段带来的环境问题。一些国家逐渐开始应对。棕色区域问题涉及到各种因素，如法律，税收，财产权，土地开发等多种因素，所以是一个复杂的，较难解决的问题。以起步较早的美国为例，以联邦立法为重心，论述了美国在“棕色区域”治理中的政策和法律制度，并对其进行了简要的评述。以期对这个问题有清醒的认识。棕色区域问题实质上是土壤污染的治理问题，这对中国缺位的土壤污染立法有重大的借鉴意义。