PREDICTION OF STREAM TEMPERATURE IN FORESTED WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: Removal of streamside vegetation changes the energy balance of a stream, and hence its temperature. A common approach to mitigating the effects of logging on stream temperature is to require establishment of buffer zones along stream corridors. A simple energy balance model is described for prediction of stream temperature in forested headwater watersheds that allows evaluation of the performance of such measures. The model is designed for application to “worst case” or maximum annual stream temperature, under low flow conditions with maximum annual solar radiation and air temperature. Low flows are estimated via a regional regression equation with independent variables readily accessible from GIS databases. Testing of the energy balance model was performed using field data for mostly forested basins on both the west and east slopes of the Cascade Mountains, and was then evaluated using the regional equations for low flow and observed maximum reach temperatures in three different east slope Cascades catchments. A series of sensitivity analyses showed that increasing the buffer width beyond 30 meters did not significantly decrease stream temperatures, and that other vegetation parameters such as leaf area index, average tree height, and to a lesser extent streamside vegetation buffer width, more strongly affected maximum stream temperatures.     

APPLICATION OF CRITICAL PATH METHOD TO WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

ABSTRACT. The task of resource management, in this case water resources, is rapidly becoming more complex, particularly because decision making is often contingent upon various prior activities and sets of data. Comprehensive planning is required in order to prevent misallocation of resources or mismanagement in resource development. Such planning involves five general phases which are applicable to any problem faced by society: (1) problem identification; (2) formulation of alternatives; (3) evaluation of alternatives; (4) implementation; (5) review. There have been many attempts to simplify the planning process and effectively carry out these five phases. The experience of the Alberta Water Resources Division has been that the Critical Path Method is one of the most useful tools available today for planning. It involves two basic steps: (1) preparation of a network diagram which (a) identifies all the activities necessary for the completion of a project, (b) correctly sequences these activities, (c) allocates resources; and (2) mathematical computations for scheduling the activities. In other words, this approach breaks a task down into smaller units or activities for easier organization, scheduling, and performance for eventual completion of the project. This paper will illustrate the effectiveness of the Critical Path Method by discussing its application to actual water resources projects.     

SOLUTION OF A WATER RESOURCES PROBLEM WITH ECONOMIES OF SCALE BY LINEAR PROGRAMMING1

ABSTRACT Both because of its effectiveness and ease in use, linear programming has become progressively popular in water resources planning problems. Yet, the assumptions of linear construction costs can be misleading. Diseconomies of scale in construction can be handled by successive approximations to the cost function but problems with economies of scale yield paradoxical results when piecewise approximations are used. If significant economies of scale exist in only one facility, the solution to problems of this nature can be found using normal linear programming codes by successively adjusting the unit construction cost on that single facility to iteratively work toward the true optimal solution.     

NATIONWIDE ASSESSMENT OF URBAN RUNOFF IMPACT ON RECEIVING WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: Urban stormwater runoff has been recognized as a potential major contributor of pollution to receiving waters. However the projected high costs of control have prompted an examination of the extent to which these impacts have been documented. A nationwide search was conducted for case studies demonstrating a cause-effect linkage between urban runoff and impairment of beneficial uses in receiving waters. The results indicate that numerous definitions of “impacts” are being used and that few substantive data exist to support many of these allegations. Results of a preliminary impact assessment are presented for the 248 urbanized areas of the United States. Then, the results of more recent efforts to assess these impacts in several case studies are described. This assessment demonstrates the critical need for additional short-term and long-term sampling programs.     

GROUNDWATER ZONING IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT1

In today's society the planned management of groundwater resources has played an increasingly greater role. One means of insuring the protection of groundwater quantity and quality is a regional zoning of groundwater resources. Regional zoning means to classify a given region with regard to hydrogeological characteristics and to evaluate and determine the possible use of each zone. The necessary assumption is the appropriate knowledge of geological structure (compiled in a geological map) and of hydrogeological conditions (compiled in a hydrogeological map). The basis for subdivision is a hydrogeological unit distinguished and delineated on the basis of lithological, stratigraphical, structural, and hydrogeological characteristics. It should have its own distinct hydrological system. The hydrogeological region is the basic unit. Regions may be grouped into larger units: hydrogeological provinces and realms. The subdivision of regions into hydrogeological zones, or subzones when applicable, forms the basis for a groundwater development plan.     

USE OF X-RAY FLUORESCENCE TO DETERMINE TRACE METALS IN WATER RESOURCES1

ABSTRACT. The X-ray fluorescence method was used to analyze trace metals collected in particulate form on filter papers and from the ionic state by ion exchange filter papers. The samples were prepared by allowing water to pass through these filter papers. The procedures necessary for using the X-ray fluorescence method are described. A number of samples were taken from the Great Miami River in Dayton, Ohio over one year showing the presence of the following metals, Ca, Ti, Cr, Fe, Cu, Zn, Sr, and Cd. Elements in the periodic table between Ti and Cs were detectable to a sensitivity limit of the order of 30 ppb for metals in the particulate form and 0.4 ppm for metals in the ionic form.     

INLET CONCENTRATION TIME NOMOGRAM FOR URBAN BASINS1

ABSTRACT: A physically-based nomogram to determine inlet concentration times for composite developed basins is presented. This nomogram is constructed from previously derived kinematic wave formulations of both catchment and gutter flow components of surface runoff. With specified physical properties of a basin and rainfall intensity-duration relationships, the inlet time can be obtained from the nomogram directly.     

DESIRED AND ACHIEVED OUTCOMES IN FEDERAL WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

ABSTRACT Local or project level planning occurs within most federal water resources programs. Such planning involves both federal and local participants, and commonly involves a range of interest groups. It is necessary to know what goals these participants believe the planning process ought to achieve in order to design planning procedures which will meet their expectations. Social judgment analysis was used to elicit those goals for respondents who had participated in one of five different federal water resources programs, in one of five different roles. Respondents also evaluated the extent to which the planning activities in a recent project in which they had participated had actually attained the posited goals. The respondents believed that responsiveness to local problems was significantly more important than resolving conflicts or increasing public understanding. A fourth goal, achieving national objectives, was believed to be less important than the other three. No significant differences in these goal evaluations were associated with the type of program in which the respondents had participated. However, there were significant differences associated with the respondent's role in the planning process. Respondents' ratings of the effectiveness of actual planning projects varied by both program and respondent role.     

LINEAR PROGRAMMING APPLICATIONS IN WATER RESOURCES1

Applications of linear programming to water quality and water quantity problems are discussed, and a fairly comprehensive sample of recent literature in these areas is reviewed. Basic elements of linear programming are also discussed. Emphasis is placed on the elements of linear programming that make it a useful tool for analyzing water resource problems and the basic features of various water resource problems that render them amenable to meaningful analysis by linear programming.     

IMPACT ON RESIDENTIAL WATER CONSUMPTION OF AN INCREASING RATE STRUCTURE1

ABSTRACT: A two-step procedure is used to estimate the impact of an increasing rate structure on residential water use. An error components regression procedure is used to estimate demand relationships for a period prior to the rate change. Water use is predicted for the post rate change period, assuming that the rate structure was not changed. Comparison of actual with predicted use indicate that water use declined as a result of the imposition of the increasing rate structure.     

IMPACT OF DROUGHT ON QUALITY IN A NEW JERSEY WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM1

ABSTRACT. New Jersey, together with other states in the northeast, was stricken with drought during 1961-66. The effect of this drought was most severe in the northern part of the State. The water quality of the Passaic River, which drains the urban, industrialized northeast, perhaps deteriorated the most among the major drainage systems. This river system is used as a raw-water source by 10 water suppliers. The impact of the drought upon the water supply of the Passaic Valley Water Commission, the most downstream of the basin's suppliers, which supplies an average of about 90 million gallons a day to more than 650,000 persons, is evaluated herein. The drought's impact on the raw-water quality is appraised by the comparison of before-and-after qualities of dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, biochemical-oxygen demand, turbidity, and hardness. For example, at the worst point during the drought, monthly average dissolved-solids content in the raw water were about 210 percent, hardness, about 167 percent, and biochemical-oxygen demand about 270 percent higher than antecedent values. In general, the study concludes that the drought produced a deterioration in both raw and finished water quality, and is estimated to have increased chemical-treatment costs during the drought by about $650,000.     

THE CONTINUING EVOLUTION OF AN AUSTRALIAN WATER RESOURCES POLICY1

ABSTRACT: Australia's extremely limited water resources highlight the need for policy guidelines for management. During the 1970s, there was the gradual evolution of a national water resources policy, facilitated by a nationally agreed statement of objectives and culminating in a federal policy statement presented in 1979. However, the Australian constitution gives major responsibility for water resources to the states. Further, the federal policy statement seems to assume that each state has a water resources policy and that it accords with the nationally agreed objectives. This is not the case, and the practical management of Australia's water resources falls short of the principles set out in the policy document. The River Murray, the nation's major water resource, provides ample evidence of this fact. With very limited water resources, Australia urgently needs to reduce the disparity between principle and practice in their management.     

THE EFFECTS OF AGE AND WATER FLUCTUATIONS ON FISH POPULATIONS1

ABSTRACT Two lakes having similar soil types were studied to determine the effects of age and water fluctuations on plankton, benthos and fish populations. Bluff Lake is an older man-made lake which is drawn down in the mid-summer. Oktibbeha County Lake is a young lake and the water levels are maintained. Chemistry data from the two lakes indicate that their chemical properties are very similar. Neither lake would be considered very fertile. Net plankton populations in Bluff Lake and Oktibbeha County Lake were comparable when analyzed on a number of organisms per liter basis. Fluctuations of water levels did not seem to have an effect on the net plankton populations. The benthic population in Bluff Lake is slightly higher than that found in Oktibbeha County Lake. This is true for both numbers and weight per square meter. The species composition of benthic organisms in the two lakes were similar. Based on one-acre samples from each lake, Bluff Lake has a more balanced fish population than does Oktibbeha County Lake. Neither, however, seems to support populations of game fish in which a high percentage of these are in the available or harvestable range. Both lakes contain high populations of gizzard shad.     

HYDROLOGY OF A SMALL IMPOUNDMENT AND WATERSHED IN CENTRAL OKLAHOMA1

ABSTRACT: West Bitter Creek floodwater retarding structure site 3 in South Central Oklahoma was instrumented and records obtained and analyzed to obtain information concerning an impoundment water budget that is useful to landowners and designers of these impoundments. On-site loss of water from the impoundment was only 17 percent of the inflow during three years when the annual precipitation averaged 26 inches and the annual inflow averaged 1.4 inches. Runoff from an eroded area with no farm ponds was about 70 percent greater per unit area than from a portion of the watershed where 71 percent of the drainage area was controlled by farm ponds. A previous study indicated, however, that the ponds were reducing runoff only 13 percent. Loss of top soil increases runoff considerably. Only 24 percent of the total runoff into the impoundment was base flow. The flow rate into the impoundment was less than 0.05 cfs 70 percent of the time, and the inflow rate exceeded 10 cfs only 1 percent of the time. SCS runoff curve numbers varied between 57 and 96 for the impoundment watershed with an inverse relation between precipitation amount and curve number apprently caused by partial area runoff from impervious and semi-impervious areas. A comparison of measured event runoff versus event runoff computed by the SCS curve numbers gave an r² of only 0.44. However, the total computed surface runoff for eight years of record was less than 1 percent below the measured runoff which indicated the curve number method was a good tool for predicting long term runoff for the watershed.     

SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY OF SMALL,FORESTED STREAMS1

This paper reviews sediment transport and channel morphology in small, forested streams in the Pacific Northwest region of North America to assess current knowledge of channel stability and morphology relevant to riparian management practices around small streams. Small channels are defined as ones in which morphology and hydraulics may be significantly influenced by individual clasts or wood materials in the channel. Such channels are headwater channels in close proximity to sediment sources, so they reflect a mix of hillslope and channel processes. Sediment inputs are derived directly from adjacent hillslopes and from the channel banks. Morphologically significant sediments move mainly as bed load, mainly at low intensity, and there is no standard method for measurement. The larger clastic and woody elements in the channel form persistent structures that trap significant volumes of sediment, reducing sediment transport in the short term and substantially increasing channel stability. The presence of such structures makes modeling of sediment flux in these channels — a potential substitute for measurement — difficult. Channel morphology is discussed, with some emphasis on wood related features. The problem of classifying small channels is reviewed, and it is recognized that useful classifications are purpose oriented. Reach scale and channel unit scale morphologies are categorized. A “disturbance cascade” is introduced to focus attention on sediment transfers through the slope channel system and to identify management practices that affect sediment dynamics and consequent channel morphology. Gaps in knowledge, errors, and uncertainties have been identified for future research.     

IMPACT OF DROUGHT ON QUALITY OF POTENTIAL WATER SUPPLY SOURCES IN THE SANGAMON RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: The analysis of stream flow and several water quality parameters in six Illinois rivers showed both deterioration and improvement in quality indicators during 1976–1977 drought. The adverse impacts were an increase of ammonia and manganese concentrations and, to a lesser degree, increased concentrations of phenol and specific conductance. At the worst point during the drought, the 12-month moving average of monthly ammonia concentration in the Sangamon River was about 620 percent higher than the antecedent value. On the other hand, average concentrations of nitrites and nitrates, total iron, and the number of coliform bacteria significantly decreased. This positive response suggests that streams which are considered unsuitable for municipal supply due to high levels of these quality indicators may be used as emergency sources during droughts.     

URBANIZATION IMPACT ON WATER QUALITY DURING A FLOOD IN SMALL WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: The impact of various urban land uses on water flow and quality in streams is being studied by monitoring small streams in the Milwaukee urban area. This paper compares the responses of an urban watershed and an agricultural watershed to an autumn rainfall of 2.2 cm. Flow from the urban basin showed a substantially greater response to the rain than that from the rural. Dilution, resulting from the greater quantities of surface runoff in the urban watershed, caused lower concentrations of sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate and total dissolved solids in the urban stream. The total quantity of these materials removed per unit drainage area of the urban basin was much greater, however. Road salt was still among the dominant dissolved materials in the urban water chemistry seven months after the last road salting. Sodium was apparently being released from adsorption by clays in the urban basin. Suspended sediment concentrations and total loads were higher in the urban stream.     

PREDICTION OF PEAK FLOWS ON SMALL WATERSHEDS IN OREGON FOR USE IN CULVERT DESIGN1

ABSTRACT: Using data from 80 Oregon watersheds that ranged in size from 0.54 km² to 27.45 km², equations were developed to predict peak flows for use in culvert design on forest roads. Oregon was divided into six physiographic regions based on previous studies of flood frequency. In each region, data on annual peak flow from gaging stations with more than 20 years of record were analyzed using four flood frequency distributions: type 1 extremal, two parameter-log normal, three parameter-log normal, and log-Pearson type III. The log-Pearson type III distribution was found to be suitable for use in all regions of the State, based on the chi-square goodness-of-fit-test. Flood magnitudes having recurrence intervals of 10, 25, 50, and 100 years were related to physical and climatic characteristics of drainage basins by multiple regression. Drainage basin size was the most important variable in explaining the variation of flood peaks in all regions. Mean basin elevation and mean annual precipitation were also significantly related to flood peaks in two regions of western Oregon. The standard error of the estimate for the regression relationships ranged from 26 to 84 percent.     

IMPACTS OF SILVICULTURE ON FLATWOODS RUNOFF,WATER QUALITY,AND NUTRIENT BUDGETS1

ABSTRACT: Three forest watersheds were isolated by roads in poorly drained flatwoods of Florida. After 12 months of baseline calibration the forest in one watershed was harvested and regenerated with minimum disturbance, in the second watershed with maximum disturbance from common practices, and in the third watershed left intact as a control. Water yields from the maximum treatments increased a significant 250 percent while that from the minimum treatments increased 117 percent as compared to the control. Weed vegetation remaining after the minimum treatment continued significant water use. The water yield increases lasted only for one year. Water quality was reduced by both treatments with the most effect immediately after the maximum disturbance. Absolute levels of suspended sediments, potassium, and calcium remained relatively low. The maximum treatment caused significant changes in net cation balances only for one year. The information shows relative little effect of silvicultural practices in flatwoods on water quality as compared to data from upland forests. Water yield increases may be manipulated by the degree of harvest and weed control practices.     

CAPITAL COSTS OF RURAL WATER SYSTEMS: AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH1

ABSTRACT: In the last two decades the federal government has provided substantial capital to construct rural water distribution systems. Loans at subsidized interest rates and front-end grants through the Farmers Home Administration have been the main source of this capital. Recent federal policy redirections have reduced substantially the availability of grants and subsidized loans. Because of design and material differences, capital cost estimates from urban systems are not uniformly applicable to rural water services. This study presents an econometric analysis of capital costs, using Illinois rural water system construction contract bids. Cost equations by systems components representing 90 percent of capital costs are estimated. The type of information developed here can be used in initial planning and optimization design models contributing to the efficient provision of rural water services.