Using environmental accounts to promote sustainable development: Experience in southern Africa

Environmental accounts bring together economic and environmental information in a common framework to measure the contribution of the environment to the economy and the impact of the economy on the environment. They enable governments to set priorities, monitor economic policies more precisely, enact more effective environmental regulations and resource management strategies, and design more efficient market instruments for environmental policies. This article uses examples from the regional environmental accounting programme in southern Africa to demonstrate the usefulness of environmental accounts to policy-making and natural resource management. The examples address the contribution of natural capital endowments (minerals and fisheries) to sustainable development in Botswana and Namibia; the economic importance of non-market forest goods and services in South Africa; and the socio-economic impact of current water allocation and pricing policies in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa. While there are many additional policy applications, these few provide a powerful argument for the use of environmental accounts in all countries.     

Economic cost of mineral supply disruptions: Effects on a small, open economy

The potential impact of short-run disruptions in the minerals market on Israel's small, developed open economy is examined, showing that Israel is potentially capable of a smoother adjustment to external market disturbances. First, the analysis evaluates critical situations within the framework of a normative ‘general equilibrium model’, tracing the impacts of short-run developments in the resources market, and, second, it focuses on specific minerals within a partial equilibrium framework, using economic supply - demand relationships to assess economic damages. The potential damage estimates indicate that significant research and development outlays in the areas of material and process substitution and the capability for a quick build-up of contingent inventories would be justified to prevent the damages which supply disruption might inflict on the economy.     

Framework for Measuring Sustainable Development in Catchment Systems

Integrated catchment management represents an approach to managing the resources of a catchment by integrating environmental, economic, and social issues. It is aimed at deriving sustainable benefits for future generations, while protecting natural resources, particularly water, and minimizing possible adverse social, economic, and environmental consequences. Indicators of sustainable development, which summarize information for use in decision-making, are invaluable when trying to assess the diverse, interacting components of catchment processes and resource management actions. The Driving-Forces–Pressure–State–Impact–Response (DPSIR) indicator framework is useful for identifying and developing indicators of sustainable development for catchment management. Driving forces have been identified as the natural conditions occurring in a catchment and the level of development and economic activity. Pressures include the natural and anthropogenic supply of water, water demand, and water pollution. State indicators can be split into those of quantity and those of quality. Impacts include those that affect the ecosystems directly and those that impact the use value of the resource. It core indicators are identified within each of the categories given in the framework, most major catchment-based management issues can be evaluated. This framework is applied to identify key issues in catchment management in South Africa, and develop a set of indicators for evaluating catchments throughout the country.     

WELFARE IMPLICATIONS OF TUBEWELL IRRIGATION IN BANGLADESH1

ABSTRACT: This paper investigates and estimates the welfare loss due to monopoly in tubewell irrigation water market in Bangladesh. In this context, an attempt has been made to evaluate the efficacy of the landless irrigation groups. Using cross-sectional data and regression analysis, cost and demand functions for irrigation water are estimated. The study demonstrates the relatively superior performance of the landless groups in terms of economic efficiency in shallow tubewell irrigation operation, in comparison to irrigation operation by the landowners.     

COMPETING WATER USES IN THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES: VALUING DROUGHT DAMAGES1

ABSTRACT: Economic benefit functions of water resource use are estimated for all major offstream and instream uses of Colorado River water. Specific benefit estimates are developed for numerous agricultural regions, for municipal uses, and for cooling water in thermal energy generation. Economic benefits of hydropower generation are given, as are those for recreation on Colorado River reservoirs and on one free-flowing reach. Marginal and total benefit estimates for Colorado River water use are provided. The estimates presented here represent a synthesis of previous work, providing in total a comprehensive set of economic demand functions for competing uses of Colorado River water. Non-use values (e.g., benefits of preserving endangered species) are not estimated.     

Global and regional potential of wastewater as a water,nutrient and energy source

There is a proactive interest in recovering water, nutrients and energy from waste streams with the increase in municipal wastewater volumes and innovations in resource recovery. Based on the synthesis of wastewater data, this study provides insights into the global and regional “potential” of wastewater as water, nutrient and energy sources while acknowledging the limitations of current resource recovery opportunities and promoting efforts to fast-track high-efficiency returns. The study estimates suggest that, currently, 380 billion m³ (m³ = 1,000 L) of wastewater are produced annually across the world which is a volume five-fold the volume of water passing through Niagara Falls annually. Wastewater production globally is expected to increase by 24% by 2030 and 51% by 2050 over the current level. Among major nutrients, 16.6 Tg (Tg = million metric ton) of nitrogen are embedded in wastewater produced worldwide annually; phosphorus stands at 3.0 Tg and potassium at 6.3 Tg. The full nutrient recovery from wastewater would offset 13.4% of the global demand for these nutrients in agriculture. Beyond nutrient recovery and economic gains, there are critical environmental benefits, such as minimizing eutrophication. At the energy front, the energy embedded in wastewater would be enough to provide electricity to 158 million households. These estimates and projections are based on the maximum theoretical amounts of water, nutrients and energy that exist in the reported municipal wastewater produced worldwide annually. Supporting resource recovery from wastewater will need a step-wise approach to address a range of constraints to deliver a high rate of return in direct support of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 6, 7 and 12, but also other Goals, including adaptation to climate change and efforts in advancing “net-zero” energy processes towards a green economy.     

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE PROGRAMS IN APPALACHIA AND THEIR IMPACT ON REGIONAL EMPLOYMENT1

ABSTRACT: The reduction of regional unemployment requires a sufficient demand for regional labor and the demand pattern must parallel that of supply. Due to the interdependency of Appalachian economy with the rest of the Nation, the leakage of the final demand imposed on a subregion of Appalachia is substantial. The more capital intensive the investment the higher the leakage which will lead to less demand for labor in Appalachia. While water resource projects are generally longterm projects which aim at structural changes in a regional economy, consumption expenditures induced by welfare payments or public employment programs are basically temporary measures for the rescue of unemployment. Average consumption and private investment programs may impose on Appalachia a larger material demand but the demand for the total regional labor, off-site and on-site combined, is estimated to be less than that from water resource investments. The public expenditure program for combating regional unemployment must be discretionary based on its purpose and its potential to generate optimum demand for labor which will be created by the pattern of regional resource distribution and interindustrial and interregional interactions. An interregional I/O model is best suited for analysis of this type.     

ECONOMICS OF CONTROLLING NATURAL SALT SOURCES IN THE ARKANSAS RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: The methodology underlying, and the estimates incorporated in the Corps of Engineers' economic evaluation of the Arkansas River Basin Chloride Control Project are evaluated and judged deficient in several ways. An improperly specified alternative cost analysis probably results in overestimates of the total regional demand for water, the demand for Arkansas River Water, and the cost-savings realized with the project in place. The quantitative effect of these errors is not determined. However, other adjustments are identified which are evaluated using the Corps' data. These adjustments reduce B/C from 2.64 to 0.57; principally as a result of corrections for over-estimates of cost-savings in steam-electric generation, and for use of improper discounting procedures and gross output-earnings ratios.     

水资源多目标协同配置:全价值基础上的框架研究

从资源的视角而言,水资源具有的社会、经济、生态属性中,社会属性和生态属性所提供的生态功能和服务多是外部性和非市场的,其价值在纯粹的市场驱动下难以充分实现。从资源管理视角而言,水资源多目标协同配置的实质是水资源多重属性功能和服务的均衡。因此,将具有外部性的社会、生态功能和服务与具有经济价值的功能和服务同时纳入配置框架,是实现多目标协同配置实践的关键问题。本文在回顾水资源配置和水资源非市场价值评估的相关研究的基础上,围绕我国现行水资源配置存在的主要问题,通过水资源的全价值(市场价值和非市场价值)将其多属性功能和公众意愿纳入水资源多目标协同配置中,从水资源管理信息系统、全价值评估和配置管理的绩效评价三个方面构建了水资源配置的多目标协同框架,最后提出相关的保障政策建议。     

ASSESSING THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF GROUND WATER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY DECISIONS1

ABSTRACT: The full range of environmental and economic services of ground water need to be accounted for in policy decisions. Non-recognition of these services imputes a lower value for the ground water resource in establishing policies. We describe a conceptual framework for identifying and measuring the economic value of groundwater. The valuation framework links changes in physical characteristics of ground water to services provided by ground water and the economic effects of changes in ground water services. In addition to the framework, we develop a general protocol to follow for assessing the benefits of ground water policies. Application of the protocol will aid in establishing structure and consistency across policy assessments and improve the accuracy and completeness of benefit estimates, avoid double-counting problems, and eliminate duplication of ground water valuation efforts.     

REAcct: a scenario analysis tool for rapidly estimating economic impacts of major natural and man-made hazards

The REAcct (for Regional Economic Accounting) tool was developed for estimating order-of-magnitude economic impacts within DHS scenario analysis. REAcct uses input–output modeling, geo-spatial data computational tools, and publically available economic data and allows for detailed specification of sectors, regions, and disruption intervals. Direct impacts are estimated as changes in output and employment; total (direct plus indirect) impacts are calculated using regional total and final demand multipliers. In total, the REAcct framework and software allow for scenario analysts to understand and assess the interdependent relationships between critical infrastructures, economic industries, and consumers that are essential to broader homeland security scenario analysis.     

跨流域调水的公正问题——基于环境正义的分析视角

水资源时空分布不均造成的水资源短缺问题已成为阻碍区域发展的重要因素。为了应对区域间的水资源短缺问题,跨流域调水工程作为不同流域水资源优化配置的一种手段,被广泛用于解决水资源分配不均和区域需水不平衡问题。调水工程虽然短期内缓解了水资源压力,平衡了区域间用水需求,但其建设和运营过程对工程所涉区域的地方经济、地理环境、人文环境以及生态环境也造成不同程度的压力。本文通过对当前世界范围内跨流域调水工程的文献回顾,围绕跨流域调水工程所引发的社会公平正义层面的争议,借助环境正义理论的分析方法,通过对国内外调水案例的实践分析,追踪相关环境不公的现象和争议,剖析当前社会—生态冲突的产生机制。最后从我国水生态文明建设实际出发,提出以建立健全水权交易市场,构建"赋权—认同—合作"参与机制和树立"人类命运共同体"理念的解决对策,以期降低调水工程对环境和社会所造成的负面影响,推进水生态正义体系的建设。     

A dual-interval fixed-mix stochastic programming method for water resources management under uncertainty

In this study, a dual-interval fixed-mix stochastic programming (DFSP) method is developed for planning water resources management systems under uncertainty. DFSP incorporates interval-parameter programming (IPP) and fuzzy vertex analysis (FVA) within a fixed-mix stochastic programming (FSP) framework to address uncertain parameters described as probability distributions and dual intervals. It can also be used for analyzing various policy scenarios that are associated with different levels of economic consequences since penalties are exercised with recourse actions against any infeasibility. A real case for water resources management planning of Zhangweinan River Basin in China is then conducted for demonstrating the applicability of the developed DFSP method. Solutions in association with α-cut levels are generated by solving a set of deterministic submodels, which are useful for generating a range of decision alternatives under compound uncertainties. The results can help to identify desired water-allocation schemes for local sustainable development that the prerequisite water demand can be guaranteed when the available water resource is scarce.     

A Review of the United States' Past and Projected Water Use

Good information and data on water demands are needed to perform good analyses, yet collecting and compiling spatially and temporally consistent water demand data are challenges. The objective of our work was to understand the limitations associated with water‐use estimates and projections. We performed a comprehensive literature review of national and regional United States (U.S.) water‐use estimates and projections. We explored trends in past regional projections of freshwater withdrawals and compared these values to regional estimates of freshwater withdrawals made by the U.S. Geological Survey. Our results suggest a suite of limitations exist that have the potential for influencing analyses aiming to extract explanatory variables from the data or using the data to make projections and forecasts. As we explored regional projections, we paid special attention to the two largest water demand‐side sectors — thermoelectric energy and irrigation — and found thermoelectric projections are more spread out than irrigation projections. All data related to water use have limitations, and there is no alternative to making the best use that we can of the available data; our article provides a comprehensive review of these limitations so that water managers can be more informed.     

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN THE MIDDLE EAST1

ABSTRACT: Water is, and most likely will continue to be, one of the main concerns and potential causes of instability in the Middle East (ME). The contribution of the existing renewable water resources is limited and can not fulfill the long-term projected gap between water supply and demand for most of the countries in the ME. An integrated regional approach for fulfilling this gap was preferred. A regional institutional framework was proposed for the implementation of this integrated regional approach and consists of a regional water board operating through three units for technical, implementation, and management aspects of project and activities. An analysis of the regional water supply and demand development, the design and policy making of the proposed institution, technology and water markets, cooperation, actors and beneficiaries, finances, and expected obstacles and constraints to the establishment and sustainable operation of the proposed institution are included.     

A NONLINEAR MULTILEVEL MODEL FOR REGIONAL WATER RESOURCES PLANNING1

ABSTRACT: A nonlinear multilevel transportation model is developed to study large-scale allocations in a water resources system. The model uses a modified transportation matrix formulated with nonlinear cost functions as the basic subregional model and the goal coordination method for multilevel decomposition and optimization of the overall regional system. The model is applied to projected water requirements for Salt Lake County in 1985. Sources of water supply - surface water, ground water, import water, and reuse of reclaimed wastewater on a restricted basis - are available to satisfy water requirements for municipal, industrial, and agricultural sectors in four subregions. The conjugate gradient projection method is used to optimize the first level subregional models having cost functions of the form of C = aX^b, and the second level problem is solved using the conjugate gradient method.     

Poverty and biodiversity in rural areas based on two investigations in Pujiang County,China

This study presents an integrated framework for the analysis of options of agricultural development and natural resource management at the ecosystem level. Pujiang County in Zhejiang Province, China, is used as a case-study area. The IMGLP model is applied to maximize regional agricultural economic surplus and labor market conditions in Pujiang. The consequences of four poverty reduction strategies (intensification of production, diversification toward livestock production, land expansion, and exit from agriculture) are determined for a set of regional poverty and biodiversity indicators. Diversification seems to be the most promising poverty reduction strategy, but requires an efficient use of animal manure in cropping systems to avoid environmental problems. Improved nutrient management in cropping systems is effective in reducing the regional nitrogen surplus, but less effective in increasing per capita income. The exit strategy is beneficial for reducing poverty and achieving biodiversity, but may have important social consequences that are not addressed in this study. Further reduction of rural poverty is hampered by labor constraints during the harvesting period for high-value crops such as vegetables and fruits. These constraints can be overcome by intensive research and development in the field of agricultural mechanization.     

WATER USE RELATIONSHIPS AND PROJECTION CORRESPONDING WITH REGIONAL GROWTH,SEATTLE REGION1

ABSTRACT: The paper outlines both the methods used and the results obtained in a study of the demand for municipal and industrial water for the Seattle region. The study was made as part of a regional water management study program, one objective of which is to “… identify, quantify, and set priorities for all current and future water uses …”. A basic concept in the study of municipal and industrial water use is that the demand for water is derived from the demand for output and the direct services that water provides. Principal characteristics of the study are: (1) Water use is studied by type - residential, commercial, industrial and public -with identification of factors affecting each; (2) Water demands are studied by season as well as on an annual basis; (3) Projections of future water use are tied directly to projections of economic change in the service area; and (4) The effects of alternative policies on water use are estimated. Water use levels are projected under alternative regional growth assumptions provided by the Puget Sound Governmental Conference, a regional planning agency. Thus, the water use planning is consistent with other regional planning programs in this respect. The results can be varied according to changes in specific factors affecting water use. The factors considered in the present study include: single-family residential lot size, distribution of population between single- and multi-family units, per capita water use by multi-family unit residents, and industrial and commercial water use per employee. An income elasticity of demand was estimated for single-family residential water use.     

Country-scale phosphorus balancing as a base for resources conservation

In order to effectively conserve the non-renewable resource phosphorus (P), flows and stocks of P must be known at national, regional and global scales. P is a key non-renewable resource because its use as fertilizer cannot be substituted posing a constraint on the global food production in the long-term. This paper presents a methodology to establish country-wide P balances that emphasises resource use. We develop a material flow analysis (MFA) model that comprises all relevant flows and stocks of P in five subsystems, seven processes and 36 material flows. For quantification, statistical data from economic and agricultural sources as well as available information about P partitioning in natural and anthropogenic processes are used. Special attention is paid to data gaps and uncertainties. The model was tested in two case studies on P management in Turkey and Austria. MFA appears to be a tool well suited for establishing country-wide P balances, provided that national statistics are well-structured and accessible. If a common approach is used for modelling P-flows and stocks, regional and national balances can be compared and linked towards larger scale P balances for an improved management of the resource.     

ECONOMIC RESOURCE MULTIPLIERS FOR REGIONAL IMPACT ANALYSIS1

ABSTRACT: Tradeoffs between regional economic development and resource use is a question often confronting local decisionmakers. A resource-interindustry model can be used to depict the interrelationships between regional economic sectors as to household income and/or employment and resource use. A resource-interindustry model was developed for Humboldt and Lander Counties in Nevada which shows the tradeoffs between regional household income (wages, salaries, profits, and rents) and/or employment and water usage. Water income and water employment multipliers can be ranked, enabling decisionmakers to realize sectors which require greatest regional water usage to regional household income and/or employment.