近百年重庆主城区汛期降水及其集中期的变化特征

利用一种改进的定义汛期降水集中期的方法对重庆主城区近百余年汛期降水集中期进行了划分,并分析了集中期的重心日、雨量及其与汛期降水总量的关系。结果表明：近百余年重庆主城区汛期降水量线性变化趋势不明显,阶段变化显著。百余年来发生过两次突变,分别发生于1914年和1925年,分别突变为增加和减少趋势。3 a左右的周期为汛期降水的主要周期。6月为降水集中期重心日发生最多的月份,8月出现相对较少,4月上半月和10月均没有出现过。近百余年重庆主城区降水集中期雨量及其占汛期降水总量的比例表现为线性增加的趋势,它们的阶段性变化比较一致,尤其是21世纪以来近10 a显著偏多。集中期雨量与汛期降水之间存在很好的相关关系,但是在某些特殊年份上也存在差异。15 d滑动统计方法划分的集中期雨量作为一种极端气候事件,具有较强描述灾害事件的能力,但其极端特殊性可能会表现在某些特殊年份或年际间的变化中,充分认识其规律,能为诊断和预测业务提供更为可靠的参考依据     

山地城市小型季节性河流雨洪淹没的数值模拟

为预测伏牛溪中下游河段沿岸工程设施在流域暴雨期的潜在淹没危险性,利用MIKE11模型模拟了不同重现期暴雨和长江洪水发生时,伏牛溪中下游河段淹没深度及淹没范围。结果表明:50年及100年一遇暴雨发生时,伏牛溪中游河段的平均淹没深度分别为4.9 m和5.7 m,淹没面积分别为40 542 m2和41 980 m2,鳌山综合市场处居民生活用地会被淹没;50年及100年一遇长江洪水倒灌发生时,下游河段平均淹没深度分别为7.5 m和8.9 m,淹没面积分别为9 890 m2和10 931 m2;50年及100年一遇暴雨和长江洪水同时发生时,下游河段平均淹没深度分别达到9.4 m和10.1 m,淹没面积分别为14 559 m2和16 987 m2,下游污水处理装置会被淹没,部分居民建筑物地基受到威胁。模拟结果为伏牛溪流域的防洪规划和工程设施建设提供了参考。     

Exposure and vulnerability to climate extremes: population and asset exposure to coastal flooding in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

The paper provides a first quantitative estimate of the potential number of people and value of assets exposed to coastal flooding in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The study used an elevation-based geographic information system-analysis based on physical exposure and socio-economic vulnerability under a range of climate and socio-economic scenarios. It particularly considered a worst-case scenario assuming even if defences (natural and/or man-made) exist, they are subjected to failure under a 100-year flood event. About 8% of Dar es Salaam lies within the low-elevation coastal zone (below the 10 m contour lines). Over 210,000 people could be exposed to a 100-year coastal flood event by 2070, up from 30,000 people in 2005. The asset that could be damaged due to such event is also estimated to rise from US35 million (2005) to US35 million (2005) to US10 billion (2070). Results show that socio-economic changes in terms of rapid population growth, urbanisation, economic growth, and their spatial distribution play a significant role over climate change in the overall increase in exposure. However, the study illustrates that steering development away from low-lying areas that are not (or less) threatened by sea-level rise and extreme climates could be an effective strategic response to reduce the future growth in exposure. Enforcement of such policy where informal settlements dominate urbanisation (as in many developing countries) could undoubtedly be a major issue. It should be recognised that this analysis only provides indicative results. Lack of sufficient and good quality observational local climate data (e.g. long-term sea-level measurements), finer-resolution spatial population and asset distribution and local elevation data, and detailed information about existing coastal defences and current protection levels are identified as limitations of the study. As such, it should be seen as a first step towards analysing these issues and needs to be followed by more detailed, city-based analyses.     

近47年云贵高原汛期强降水和极端降水变化特征

利用云贵高原159个常规气象站1961～2007年汛期（5～10月）逐日降水量,用百分位法定义站点强降水和极端降水阈值,对强降水和极端降水事件进行了分析研究。结果表明：云贵高原汛期强降水和极端降水阈值地理分布差异较大,与汛期降水量关系不大,而与站点海拔高度显著负相关;1961～2007年汛期降水量变化趋势不明显,但降水日数显著减少,降水有集中的趋势;强降水量和极端降水量具有与汛期降水量相似的年际波动特征,极端降水与汛期降水的相关高于强降水;以强降水量和极端降水量与汛期降水量的比重表征事件的强度,两者均呈显著增加的变化趋势,并在1990年代初期发生了显著增加的突变;强降水和极端降水与夏季季风强弱变化显著负相关。     

基于情景分析的区域洪涝灾害风险评价——以巢湖流域为例

洪涝灾害是制约区域粮食安全和社会可持续发展的主要因子之一。在风险识别的基础上,从致灾因子、孕灾环境、承灾体等方面选取评价指标,建立评价指标体系。运用层次分析法确定指标权重,通过情景分析技术从降水、土地利用、人口、GDP等方面构建复合情景;应用GIS空间分析技术构建洪涝灾害风险评价模型,对巢湖流域洪涝灾害风险进行评价。研究结果表明:2020年巢湖流域洪涝灾害危险性由东南部向西北部减小;合肥市区的洪涝灾害易损性最大,和县的易损性最小。巢湖流域东南部洪涝灾害风险最大,西南部的大别山区风险较小,随着重现期的增大,流域的洪涝灾害风险也逐渐增大。模拟灾害发生的情景,并分析不同情景下的洪涝灾害风险,更能体现洪涝灾害的不确定性和变化性,为流域防洪战略决策研究提供科学依据。     

Climate change,flooding in South Asia and implications

South Asia is one of the most flood vulnerable regions in the world. Floods occur often in the region triggered by heavy monsoon precipitation and can cause enormous damages to lives, property, crops and infrastructure. The frequency of extreme floods is on the rise in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. Past extreme floods fall within the range of climate variability but frequency, magnitude and extent flooding may increase in South Asia in future due to climate change. Flood risk is sensitive to different levels of warming. For example, in Bangladesh, analysis shows that most of the expected changes in flood depth and extent would occur between 0 and 2°C warming. The three major rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna/Barak will play similar roles in future flooding regimes as they are doing presently. Increases in future flooding can cause extensive damage to rice crops in the monsoon. This may have implications for food security especially of poor women and children. Floods can also impact public health in the flood plains and in the coastal areas.     

近53 a来长江流域极端降水指数特征

利用1963~2015年长江流域115个气象站点逐日降水数据,分析了不同极端降水指标的空间变化特点和时间变化趋势。结果表明,近53 a来,长江流域多年平均年极端降水量与年降水量从下游到上游逐渐递减,两者变化趋势大致呈现“增-减-增”的空间分布格局。年极端降水量对年降水量贡献（PEP）存在明显的空间分布差异,但贡献比例在流域内普遍呈现增加的趋势。持续1 d的极端降水事件的降水量分布及其变化趋势与年极端降水量的分布特征类似,其对年极端降水量的贡献比例高达65%以上,说明长江流域极端降水以持续1 d的极端降水事件为主。持续2 d及以上的极端降水事件主要集在中皖苏赣局部地区和四川中部地区,但其降水量对年极端降水量的贡献比例较小。从上游到下游,年最大日降水量（MDP）逐渐增大。其中,上游源头地区的沱沱河、曲麻莱和玉树3个站点MDP主要集中在0~25 mm之间,其他站点均以25~50 mm量级为主;长江流域中部地区的MDP大部分以50~100 mm的量级为主,处于100~150 mm之间的次之;长江流域东部地区主要以100~150 mm量级的MDP为主。 关键词： 极端降水;降水贡献;不同历时;长江流域     

上海市降雨变化与灾害性降雨特征分析

降雨是引发城市内涝的关键因素,与公众安全密切相关,分析其特征,能够为内涝防治提供一定参考和依据。上海地区气候条件复杂,深受暴雨、台风等水情灾害影响。依据国家基本气象站-宝山站数据,对上海市近40 a降雨变化和灾害性降雨特征进行了分析。结果表明上海年均降雨量以509 mm/10 a的速率递增。同时,降雨天数的减少较为显著,以3 d/10 a的速率递减。从降雨量和降雨强度的角度,灾害性降雨多为暴雨和短历时强降雨。上海年均暴雨天数为3 d,但雨量可占全年的1/5,大范围暴雨通常由台风引起。近年来,高于排水标准的短历时强降雨出现频次有增多的趋势。汛期作为灾害性降雨的高发期,可作为城市防涝的重点     

长江流域极端降水的区域频率及时空特征

以长江流域130个气象站点1965~2014年的日降水量资料为基础,应用线性矩以及各种统计检验和空间分析技术对流域极端降水进行区域频率分析和时空特征描绘。研究表明：（1）应用模糊C均值分类和异质性检验,整个长江流域的年最大1、3、7和10日降水序列均可划分为7个一致性子区域。拟合优度检验表明,广义极值分布（GEV）和广义正态分布（GNO）为大部分区域极端降水序列的最佳分布;（2）使用考虑站间依赖性的Monte Carlo模拟评价极端降水增长曲线和分位数估计值的精确性,与站点绝对独立的情况相比,其均方根误差（RMSE）变大,90%的误差界也变宽;（3）每个一致性区域的区域增长曲线及其90%的误差界表明,当重现期小于100年时分位数估计值具有较高的可靠性,在四川盆地和长江中下游地区发生极端降水事件的可能性比较大,易发生高风险洪涝灾害;（4）重现期为100年的极端降水空间分布格局表明,从长江上游到下游的极端降水量逐渐增加,导致长江中下游流域更容易遭受洪涝灾害,这一结果与其区域增长曲线相一致。     

基于Copula函数的汉江中上游流域极端降雨洪水联合分布特征

选取汉江中上游流域作为研究对象,根据流域九个气象站点1969~2008年逐日降雨资料以及丹江口水库同时期日入库流量资料,采用年最大值法(AM)和百分位法两种选样方式选取1 d、3 d降雨和1 d、3 d洪量极值样本,分别运用广义极值分布(GEV)、广义帕累托分布(GPD)、伽玛分布(Gamma)3种极值统计模型对样本进行单变量边缘分布拟合,运用Gumbel、Clayton以及Frank Copula函数模型对样本进行多变量联合分布拟合,遴选出描述流域降雨和洪水联合分布规律的最优概率模型。结果显示:对于AM选样样本,边缘分布为GEV时降雨洪量的二维和三维联合分布Frank Copula函数拟合效果最优;对于百分位选样样本,边缘分布为GPD时降雨洪量的二维联合分布Gumbel Copula函数拟合效果最优,三维联合分布则是Frank Copula函数拟合效果最优;比较二维和三维Copula函数模拟结果,三维联合Copula函数推求的设计值更大,说明三维联合分布考虑了更多的变量和极值信息,能更全面地反映极端降雨洪水事件的真实特征,对工程设计更显安全。     

Drought frequency in the Volta Basin of West Africa

According to various reports, climate change is responsible for the change in rainfall amount and pattern accompanied by the various degrees of extreme events in Sahelian West Africa in recent years. Other reports also suggest that there has been a “recovery” of the rainy season (Nicholson 2005). In this study, temporal characteristics of meteorological droughts in the Volta basin, a semi-arid region in West Africa, are investigated in order to provide a guide for sustainable water resource management. For this purpose, drought intensity, areal extent and recurrence frequency is analysed using the standardised precipitation index (SPI) for a time series between 1961 and 2005 from 52 meteorology stations across the Volta basin. Using this analysis the severity of the historical droughts of 1961, 1970, 1983, 1992 and 2001 that occurred in the region are assessed and their intensity, areal extent and return periods are obtained. The drought intensity is lower than −2.0 over nearly 75% of the region, meaning that a major part of the region was under extreme drought conditions during this year. The drought of 1983/1984 has a probability of occurrence of up to 0.1 from records spanning 44 years. The areal extent of extreme drought conditions is about 90% during this drought period.     

基于GIS淹没模型的城市道路内涝灾害风险区划研究

在求取襄阳中心城区重现期雨量与可抽排雨量的基础上,采用基于GIS暴雨洪涝淹没模型计算不同重现期致灾雨量的淹没水深和范围;依据城市内涝对道路的实际影响,制作城市道路内涝灾害风险区划图。结果表明,该方法能够直观表达研究区域内不同雨量阈值的内涝灾害淹没风险分布,定量评估淹没水深、淹没范围。同时给出了城市道路内涝灾害风险区划图,结合城市道路信息,准确定位高风险易涝街区,为政府部门决策提供科学依据。     

1644~1949年长江三角洲地区五种洪涝致灾因子组合特征分析

为研究洪涝灾害中不同洪涝致灾因子组合特征对灾害的决定作用,基于历史文献资料,对长江三角洲地区1644~1949年五种洪涝致灾因子(简称洪涝因子)——连续降水、台风、潮灾、上游洪水以及强降水——分类辨识并逐年赋值统计,得到1644~1949年长江三角洲逐年洪涝因子总值序列。结果表明:(1)影响洪涝的因子平均为1.66个,依据洪涝因子总值序列变化趋势,研究时段可划分为三阶段:阶段一,1644~1718年,三因子与四因子洪涝年多集中于这一阶段,该阶段均值高于全段均值与其它两阶段;阶段二,1719~1864年,该段波动较大,单一因子与二因子洪涝年发生频次较高,该段均值最低,其中单一因子洪涝年以强降水因子的影响为最多;阶段三,1865~1949年,大多出现单一因子与二因子洪涝年,整体波动较小,为较平稳的时段。(2)单一因子洪涝年发生频率最大,以强降水因子出现最多,二因子洪涝年发生频率次之,以连续降水-强降水比例最高,三因子洪涝年以连续降水-台风-强降水为最多,四因子洪涝年出现最多的为连续降水—台风—上游洪水—强降水的因子组合,未出现五因子洪涝年。(3)按灾情影响范围辨识了长江三角洲地区1644~1949年6个极端洪涝灾害年和7个极端台风灾害年,发现极端洪涝灾害年主要集中于阶段一中期和阶段二后半期,包括2个四因子年、3个三因子年和1个二因子年,都与连续降水和强降水有关;而极端台风灾害年多发生于阶段二前半期,多为台风与潮灾共同致灾。     

Sea-level rise impacts on Africa and the effects of mitigation and adaptation: an application of DIVA

This paper assesses sea-level rise impacts on Africa at continental and national scales including the benefits of mitigation and of applying adaptation measures, considering four scenarios of global mean sea-level rises from 64 to 126 cm in the period of 1995–2100. We find that in 2100, 16–27 million people are expected to be flooded per year, and annual damage costs range between US5 and US 5 and US 9 billion, if no adaptation takes place. Mitigation reduces impacts by 11–36%. Adaptation in the form of building dikes to protect against coastal flooding and nourishing beaches to protect against coastal erosion reduces the number of people flooded by two orders of magnitude and cuts damage costs in half by 2100. Following such a protection strategy would require substantial investment. First, Africa’s current adaptation deficit with respect to coastal flooding would need to be addressed. DIVA suggests that a capital investment of US300 billion is required to build dikes adapted to the current surge regime and US 300 billion is required to build dikes adapted to the current surge regime and US 3 billion per year for maintenance. In addition, between US2 and US 2 and US 6 billion per year needs to be spent on protecting against future sea-level rise and socio-economic development by 2100. This suggests that protection is not effective from a monetary perspective but may still be desirable when also taking into account the avoided social impact. We conclude that this issue requires further investigation including sub-national scale studies that look at impacts and adaptation in conjunction with the development agenda and consider a wider range of adaptation options and strategies.     

基于不同卫星降雨产品的澴水花园流域径流模拟比较研究

卫星降雨产品作为缺资料或无资料地区估算流域降雨径流的一种途径,适用性尚需大量实验研究。以澴水花园流域为研究区,综合评估了TRMM(3B42V7)、TRMM_RT(3B42V7)、PERSIANN CDR和CMORPH 4个卫星降雨产品在流域平均雨量计算与径流模拟中的精度,设置多方案与多种水文模拟情景全面检验各降雨产品的可靠性与适用性。研究表明：(1)在研究期2002~2013年,没有一个卫星降雨产品对所有精度评价指标均表现最优,PERSIANN始终表现为最差;(2)各卫星降雨产品对于不同年代和不同统计时段的精度差异明显,且一般汛期精度高于全年精度。各年代精度最高的卫星降雨产品在年与汛期尺度上与实测雨量相关系数均超过0.9;(3)各卫星降雨产品对有雨日降雨探测能力较强,但空报率较高,所有卫星降雨产品对于年最大1 d、3 d和7 d降雨估算误差较大,无法达到可利用精度;(4)采用卫星降雨产品进行径流模拟时,以相应的卫星降雨进行水文模型参数率定可获得更高的模拟精度。TRMM_RT与CMORPH日径流模拟精度较好,CMORPH月径流模拟精度较好。总体而言,CMORPH更适用于径流模拟。对于典型的3场大洪水模拟结果表明,TRMM_RT和CMORPH对洪峰与洪量（径流深）的模拟精度相对较高。     

近52年江西省汛期极端降水事件的时空变化

利用江西省1960～2011年汛期83个台站逐日降水资料,首先定义了不同台站的极端降水阈值,统计各站近52a逐年汛期极端降水事件的发生频次,进而分析其时空分布特征。结果表明：江西省极端降水量阈值的地域分布呈从西到东、从南到北递增的特征。江西汛期极端降水事件发生频次的最主要空间模态是主体一致性,同时存在北部与中南部反位相变化的差异。江西汛期极端降水事件发生频次具有较大的空间差异,可分为具有不同空间特征的5个主要区域。滑动t检验表明,Ⅰ区代表站玉山的极端降水事件在1976年后和1986年后分别发生了由偏多转为偏少和由偏少转为偏多的突变;Ⅱ区代表站永丰在1974年后和1984年后分别发生了由偏少转为偏多和由偏多到偏少的突变。通过最大熵谱分析表明,各分区以2～6 a的年际变化周期最为普遍,其中Ⅴ区还存在13 a的年代际变化周期。从气候因子分析看,前期5～6月和冬季赤道东太平洋海温对江西汛期极端降水事件存在显著影响     

Environmentally compatible energy resource production—consumption pattern (case study: Iran)

Like all rapidly developing countries, the government of Iran (GOI) has to integrate environment priorities into its energy sector. In order to integrate environmental concerns into energy sector, an Energy-Environment Review (EER) may be considered as the mainstreaming tool capable of examining the interface between energy and the environment. The results of the EER should be interpreted, in the light of the objective of the 4th Five Year Development Plan in Iran, to achieve fast and sustainable growth and accelerate the transition to a market economy. In particular, the suggested actions will promote economic efficiency use of energy resources through a proper allocation of scarce resources, including environmental resources, so as to achieve economic efficiency and environmental and social protection. This paper comprises: (A) an analysis of the current situation with regards to energy production and consumption; (B) an evaluation of the growth prospects with regard to energy production and consumption; (C) the identification of environmental issues induced by the generation and use of energy and estimation of the associated costs of damages; (D) the evaluation of the extent of contribution to the climate-change phenomenon through emission of greenhouse gases; (E) the evaluation of the proposed mitigation measures for the previously identified environmental problems; and (F) conclusions and recommendations. The EER-Iran assessed the total health damage from air pollution in 2001 at about 56  ×  10¹² Rials (US $ seven billion); equivalent to 8.4% of nominal GDP. In the absence of the price reform and control policies, the EER-Iran estimated that the damage in Iran in the money of 2001, will grow to 155  ×  10¹² Rials (US $ nine billion) by 2019. This is equivalent to 10.9% of nominal GDP, i.e., a large percentage of a larger GDP. Of this total, 107  ×  10¹² Rials (US $ 8.4 billion) come from transport sector. The damage cost to the global environment from the flaring of natural gas, assessed on the basis of a carbon price of US $ 10/ton CO₂, is found to be approximately US $ 600 million per year. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Change of Flood Patterns in China under the Influences of Climate Change and Human Activities

Abstract

Based on the flood affected area (FA) data of the provinces in China from 1950 to 2005, the article discusses the change of the flood patterns in China, and investigates its relationship with climate change and human activities. The flood center shifted from North China and the Yangtze–Huaihe basin in the 1950s towards the south, north and west of China, and located in the south of the Yangtze River and South China after the 1990s. The FA in the western provinces was continuously on the rise since the 1950s. There are two characteristics for the future flood pattern in China. The pattern of “flood in the south and drought in the north” depends on the north–south shift of the maximum rainfall region in eastern China. The flood intensification to the west of Hu Huanyong’s line mainly results from the increase of rainfall, extreme precipitation and the melting of glaciers under the background of human activity magnification.     

1961~2010年中国大尺度区域暴雨时空分布特征研究

长时间大范围的区域暴雨作为一种极端天气气候事件,是人民生产生活的一大威胁,已成为社会和学界的关注焦点之一,亟需研究中国长时间序列区域暴雨的时空演变特征。通过定义的区域暴雨事件,选取持续天数、影响站点数、最大日降雨量和最大累积降雨量4项指标,统计分析了1961~2010年中国区域暴雨的时空变化格局。结果表明：在空间格局上,1961~2010年中国区域暴雨主要分布在黑龙江漠河至云南腾冲一线以东的东部沿海季风区,而西北内陆则无区域暴雨发生;在省际分布上,多集中发生在以广东为首的东部沿海省市;在时间序列上,中国区域暴雨存在准10a（6.5a和13a）的周期振荡,以1997年前后年份发生次数较多,年内多集中在5~9月,且4项指标均在6月份达到最高。     

一种新的汛期降水集中期划分方法

汛期降水集中期是近期气象学者提出的表征汛期气候的一种新的特征量,它在气候研究中体现了较好的灵活性、客观性,通过对其分析,可为汛期气候的诊断和预测提供依据。但现在普遍使用的降水集中期在计算方法和时间长度上存在缺陷,特别是运用到时间跨度较长时段的气候分析时,特征量表征作用就有所缺失,而且计算方法较为复杂。为更好地使用降水集中期这一特征量,提出了以15天作为时长,用滑动统计来划定汛期降水集中期的新方法,并运用统计方法、天气气候学方法进行了论证,同时在长江下游主雨季降水集中期分析和金华地区汛期分析两个实例中进行了应用检验。结果表明,汛期降水集中期新方法划定的特征量与汛期降水总量存在时间上的相对独立性和总趋势上的显著相关性,且在汛期气候极端灾害事件上有较强的描述能力。因此认为,15天滑动统计新方法划定的汛期降水集中期使用便捷,天气气候意义明确,在实际应用中更为客观有效。