Planning,Designing, Operating,and Regulating a Geologic Sequestration Repository as an Underground Landfill—A Review

ABSTRACT

Geologic sequestration appears to be a technically feasible method of storing carbon dioxide in underground aquifers in order to lower greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. The overall feasibility of geologic sequestration is still in question and as such, has been the focus of intense research over the past decade. Researchers have looked to the oil/gas industry and water well industry for lessons learned and technical knowledge, however, a better industry to emulate may well be the waste industry. Viewing geologic sequestration repositories as underground landfills has a great many benefits. First, there is a plethora of existing research and investigations that are directly analogous to geologic sequestration projects. Second, the regulatory framework is rather mature and can be easily adapted to serve geologic sequestration. This paper conducts an extensive literature search of the environmental, waste, and geologic sequestration literature to ascertain planning, design, and operational methodologies, lessons learned, and concepts that are directly useful for geologic sequestration to improve the technical and regulatory framework. Lastly, the paper uses a hypothetical underground landfill geologic sequestration site (ULGSS) in Florida, USA to discuss some of the findings and implications from the literature. It is concluded that there are a number of literature findings from the waste and environmental arena that should be adapted for geologic sequestration.

IMPLICATIONS Geologic sequestration is a promising solution for greenhouse gas control. This work supports that notion but suggests further improvements to the technical and regulatory framework based upon an extensive review of the waste management and environmental literature. The improvements include suggestions in the areas of permitting, site selection, operations, cost accounting, and special waste handling. Some of these improvements are discussed using a hypothetical project site in Florida, USA.     

Scenario Development as a Basis for Formulating a Research Program on Future Agriculture: A Methodological Approach

To increase the awareness of society to the challenges of global food security, we developed five contrasting global and European scenarios for 2050 and used these to identify important issues for future agricultural research. Using a scenario development method known as morphological analysis, scenarios were constructed that took economic, political, technical, and environmental factors into account. With the scenarios as a starting point future challenges were discussed and research issues and questions were identified in an interactive process with stakeholders and researchers. Based on the outcome of this process, six socioeconomic and biophysical overarching challenges for future agricultural were formulated and related research issues identified. The outcome was compared with research priorities generated in five other research programs. In comparison, our research questions focus more on societal values and the role of consumers in influencing agricultural production, as well as on policy formulation and resolving conflicting goals, areas that are presently under-represented in agricultural research. The partly new and more interdisciplinary research priorities identified in Future Agriculture compared to other programs analyzed are likely a result of the methodological approach used, combining scenarios and interaction between stakeholders and researchers.     

Planning, designing, operating, and regulating a geologic sequestration repository as an underground landfill--a review

Geologic sequestration appears to be a technically feasible method of storing carbon dioxide in underground aquifers in order to lower greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. The overall feasibility of geologic sequestration is still in question and as such, has been the focus of intense research over the past decade. Researchers have looked to the oil/gas industry and water well industry for lessons learned and technical knowledge, however, a better industry to emulate may well be the waste industry. Viewing geologic sequestration repositories as underground landfills has a great many benefits. First, there is a plethora of existing research and investigations that are directly analogous to geologic sequestration projects. Second, the regulatory framework is rather mature and can be easily adapted to serve geologic sequestration. This paper conducts an extensive literature search of the environmental, waste, and geologic sequestration literature to ascertain planning, design, and operational methodologies, lessons learned, and concepts that are directly useful for geologic sequestration to improve the technical and regulatory framework. Lastly, the paper uses a hypothetical underground landfill geologic sequestration site (ULGSS) in Florida, USA to discuss some of the findings and implications from the literature. It is concluded that there are a number of literature findings from the waste and environmental arena that should be adapted for geologic sequestration.     

The Governance of the Mitigation of the Baltic Sea Eutrophication: Exploring the Challenges of the Formal Governing System

This article focuses on the governing system of the mitigation of eutrophication in the Baltic Sea. Policies and measures of the Baltic Sea coastal countries, the macro--regional (HELCOM) level, and the level of the European Union are described and governance challenges explicated. We found that the main challenges at different governance levels include: differences between coastal countries in terms of environmental conditions including environmental awareness, overlaps of policies between different levels, the lack of adequate spatial and temporal specification of policies, and the lack of policy integration. To help to meet these challenges, we suggest closer involvement of stakeholders and the public, the improvement of the interplay of institutions, and the introduction of a “primus motor” for the governance of the mitigation of eutrophication in the Baltic Sea.     

RECOTOX,a French initiative in ecotoxicology-toxicology to monitor,understand and mitigate the ecotoxicological impacts of pollutants in socioagroecosystems

RECOTOX is a cross-cutting initiative promoting an integrated research to respond to the challenges of monitoring, understanding, and mitigating environmental and health impacts of pesticides in agroecosystems. The added value of RECOTOX is to develop a common culture around spatial ecotoxicology including the whole chain of pressure-exposure-impact, while strengthening an integrated network of in natura specifically equipped sites. In particular, it promotes transversal approaches at relevant socioecological system scales, to capitalize knowledge, expertise, and ongoing research in ecotoxicology and, to a lesser extent, environmental toxicology. Thus, it will open existing research infrastructures in environmental sciences to research programs in ecotoxicology of pesticides.     

Reflecting on progress since the 2005 NARSTO emissions inventory report

Emission inventories are the foundation for cost-effective air quality management activities. In 2005, a report by the public/private partnership North American Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone (NARSTO) evaluated the strengths and weaknesses of North American emissions inventories and made recommendations for improving their effectiveness. This paper reviews the recommendation areas and briefly discusses what has been addressed, what remains unchanged, and new questions that have arisen. The findings reveal that all emissions inventory improvement areas identified by the 2005 NARSTO publication have been explored and implemented to some degree. The U.S. National Emissions Inventory has become more detailed and has incorporated new research into previously under-characterized sources such as fine particles and biomass burning. Additionally, it is now easier to access the emissions inventory and the documentation of the inventory via the internet. However, many emissions-related research needs exist, on topics such as emission estimation methods, speciation, scalable emission factor development, incorporation of new emission measurement techniques, estimation of uncertainty, top-down verification, and analysis of uncharacterized sources. A common theme throughout this retrospective summary is the need for increased coordination among stakeholders. Researchers and inventory developers must work together to ensure that planned emissions research and new findings can be used to update the emissions inventory. To continue to address emissions inventory challenges, industry, the scientific community, and government agencies need to continue to leverage resources and collaborate as often as possible. As evidenced by the progress noted, continued investment in and coordination of emissions inventory activities will provide dividends to air quality management programs across the country, continent, and world.

Implications: In 2005, a report by the public/private partnership North American Research Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone (NARSTO) evaluated the strengths and weaknesses of North American air pollution emissions inventories. This paper reviews the eight recommendation areas and briefly discusses what has been addressed, what remains unchanged, and new questions that have arisen. Although progress has been made, many opportunities exist for the scientific agencies, industry, and government agencies to leverage resources and collaborate to continue improving emissions inventories.     

1985 Update,Operating History and Current Status of Fabric Filters in the Utility Industry

Stringent particulate emissions limits and increasing awareness of stack opacity is leading the utility industry to use high efficiency particulate control systems. In response to this trend, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) is conducting several research programs aimed at improving the operation, maintenance and performance of particulate control systems. One of these programs, RP-1401, “Reliability Assessment of Particulate Control Systems,” is developing operation, maintenance and design data bases for both electrostatic precipitators and fabric filters. This paper discusses some of the intermediate findings of the work done on fabric filters.     

A review of the characteristics of nanoparticles in the urban atmosphere and the prospects for developing regulatory controls

The likely health and environmental implications associated with atmospheric nanoparticles have prompted considerable recent research activity. Knowledge of the characteristics of these particles has improved considerably due to an ever growing interest in the scientific community, though not yet sufficient to enable regulatory decision making on a particle number basis. This review synthesizes the existing knowledge of nanoparticles in the urban atmosphere, highlights recent advances in our understanding and discusses research priorities and emerging aspects of the subject. The article begins by describing the characteristics of the particles and in doing so treats their formation, chemical composition and number concentrations, as well as the role of removal mechanisms of various kinds. This is followed by an overview of emerging classes of nanoparticles (i.e. manufactured and bio-fuel derived), together with a brief discussion of other sources. The subsequent section provides a comprehensive review of the working principles, capabilities and limitations of the main classes of advanced instrumentation that are currently deployed to measure number and size distributions of nanoparticles in the atmosphere. A further section focuses on the dispersion modelling of nanoparticles and associated challenges. Recent toxicological and epidemiological studies are reviewed so as to highlight both current trends and the research needs relating to exposure to particles and the associated health implications. The review then addresses regulatory concerns by providing an historical perspective of recent developments together with the associated challenges involved in the control of airborne nanoparticle concentrations. The article concludes with a critical discussion of the topic areas covered.     

New York State’s Action for Clean Air Program

In New York State there is a tradition of teamwork between industry and government toward air pollution control programs. This was demonstrated initially when Associated Industries assisted in writing New York State’s Air Pollution Control Law. Industry in New York State has accepted a two-way responsibility for educating industry and the public. New York State’s Department of Public Health has organized an “Action for Clean Air” program and Associated Industries of New York has joined with official agencies in promoting the public information program to lessen the possibility of hysteria.     

Past,current and future Swedish freshwater monitoring from an authority perspective

The synthesis of the BONUS+ research is introduced. The HELCOM Baltic Sea Action Plan is examined as a case to illustrate the potentials and challenges in building the science–policymaking interface on a macroregional level. The projects address environmental challenges in the Baltic Sea as defined by the Baltic Sea Action Plan, or consider the environmental governance and decision making within the Baltic Sea context in general. Eutrophication, biodiversity, hazardous substances, maritime activities, and the environment governance are addressed, as are crosscutting issues, such as the impact of climate change, maritime spatial planning and impacts of future development on ecosystem services. The projects contributed to relevant policy developments: 37 consultations carried out at EU level, 49 modifications to policy documents and action plans, 153 suggestions for the efficacy of pertinent public policies and governance, and in 570 occasions, scientists working in BONUS+ projects served as members or observers in scientific and stakeholder committees.     

ESPR subject area 5 ‘Environmental Microbiology, (Bio)Technologies, Health Issues’

Goal, Scope and Background  Aquaculture activities are well known to be the major contributor to the increasing level of organic waste and toxic compounds in the aquaculture industry. Along with the development of intensive aquaculture in China, concerns are evoked about the possible effects of everincreasing aquaculture waste both on productivity inside the aquaculture system and on the ambient aquatic ecosystem. Therefore, it is apparent that appropriate waste treatment processes are needed for sustaining aquaculture development. This review aims at identifying the current status of aquaculture and aquaculture waste production in China. Main Features  China is the world’s largest fishery nation in terms of total seafood production volume, a position it has maintained continuously since 1990. Freshwater aquaculture is a major part of the Chinese fishery industry. Marine aquaculture in China consists of both land-based and offshore aquaculture, with the latter mostly operated in shallow seas, mud flats and protected bays. The environmental impacts of aquaculture are also striking. Results  Case studies on pollution hot spots caused by aquaculture have been introduced. The quality and quantity of waste from aquaculture depends mainly on culture system characteristics and the choice of species, but also on feed quality and management. Wastewater without treatment, if continuously discharged into the aquatic environment, could result in remarkable elevation of the total organic matter contents and cause considerable economy lost. Waste treatments can be mainly classified into three categories: physical, chemical and biological methods. Discussion  The environmental impacts of different aquaculture species are not the same. New waste treatments are introduced as references for the potential development of the waste treatment system in China. The most appropriate waste treatment system for each site should be selected according to the sites’ conditions and financial status as well as by weighing the advantages and disadvantages of each system. Strategies and perspectives for sustainable aquaculture development are proposed, with the emphasis on environmental protection. Conclusions  Negative effects of waste from aquaculture to aquatic environment are increasingly recognized, though they were just a small proportion to land-based pollutants. Properly planned use of aquaculture waste alleviates water pollution problems and not only conserves valuable water resources but also takes advantage of the nutrients contained in effluent. It is highly demanding to develop sustainable aquaculture which keeps stocking density and pollution loadings under environmental capacity. Recommendations and Perspectives  The traditional procedures for aquaculture waste treatment, mainly based on physical and chemical means, should be overcome by more site-specific approaches, taking into account the characteristics and resistibility of the aquatic environment. Further research needs to improve or optimize the current methods of wastewater treatment and reuse. Proposed new treatment technology should evaluate their feasibility at a larger scale for practical application. ESS-Submission Editor: Dr. Ding Wang (wangd@ihb.ac.cn)     

When Ecosystem Services Crash: Preparing for Big,Fast, Patchy Climate Change

Assessments of adaptation options generally focus on incremental, homogeneous ecosystem responses to climate even though climate change impacts can be big, fast, and patchy across a region. Regional drought-induced tree die-off in semiarid woodlands highlights how an ecosystem crash fundamentally alters most ecosystem services and poses management challenges. Building on previous research showing how choice of location is linked to adaptive capacity and vulnerability, we developed a framework showing how the options for retaining desired ecosystem services in the face of sudden crashes depend on how portable the service is and whether the stakeholder is flexible with regard to the location where they receive their services. Stakeholders using portable services, or stakeholders who can move to other locations to obtain services, may be more resilient to ecosystem crashes. Our framework suggests that entering into cooperative networks with regionally distributed stakeholders is key to building resilience to big, fast, patchy crashes.     

Seafood from a changing Arctic

We review current knowledge about climate change impacts on Arctic seafood production. Large-scale changes in the Arctic marine food web can be expected for the next 40–100 years. Possible future trajectories under climate change for Arctic capture fisheries anticipate the movement of aquatic species into new waters and changed the dynamics of existing species. Negative consequences are expected for some fish stocks but others like the Barents Sea cod (Gadus morhua) may instead increase. Arctic aquaculture that constitutes about 2% of global farming is mainly made up of Norwegian salmon (Salmo salar) farming. The sector will face many challenges in a warmer future and some of these are already a reality impacting negatively on salmon growth. Other more indirect effects from climate change are more uncertain with respect to impacts on the economic conditions of Arctic aquaculture.     

Atmospheric nitrogen compounds II: emissions,transport, transformation,deposition and assessment

The Atmospheric Nitrogen Compounds II: Emissions, Transport, Transformation, Deposition and Assessment workshop was held in Chapel Hill, NC from 7 to 9 June 1999. This international conference, which served as a follow-up to the workshop held in March 1997, was sponsored by: North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources; North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, North Carolina Office of the State Health Director; Mid-Atlantic Regional Air Management Association; North Carolina Water Resources Research Institute; Air and Waste Management Association, RTP Chapter; the US Environmental Protection Agency and the North Carolina State University (College of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, and North Carolina Agricultural Research Service). The workshop was structured as an open forum at which scientists, policy makers, industry representatives and others could freely share current knowledge and ideas, and included international perspectives. The workshop commenced with international perspectives from the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Denmark. This article summarizes the findings of the workshop and articulates future research needs and ways to address nitrogen/ammonia from intensively managed animal agriculture. The need for developing sustainable solutions for managing the animal waste problem is vital for shaping the future of North Carolina. As part of that process, all aspects of environmental issues (air, water, soil) must be addressed as part of a comprehensive and long-term strategy. There is an urgent need for North Carolina policy makers to create a new, independent organization that will build consensus and mobilize resources to find technologically and economically feasible solutions to this aspect of the animal waste problem.     

Plant-based coagulants/flocculants: characteristics,mechanisms, and possible utilization in treating aquaculture effluent and benefiting from the recovered nutrients

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - The increasing intensification of the aquaculture industry requires the development of new strategies to reduce the negative impacts of wastewater on...     

Review of historical aquatic toxicity and bioconcentration data for the brominated flame retardant tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA): effects to fish,invertebrates, algae,and microbial communities

This paper summarizes the historical and recent research on the aquatic toxicology and bioconcentration potential of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), a major flame retardant in electronics. Historical studies on TBBPA are presented in detail, and are compared with more recent research. The historical studies have not been published to date, though they were pivotal in regulatory assessments by the European Union, Canada, and the USA. These assessments have enabled the use of TBBPA as a flame retardant in electronic applications, to the present. The studies were conducted under a Test Rule by the US Environmental Protection Agency in 1987, and were sponsored by member companies of the North American Flame Retardants Alliance (NAFRA) through the American Chemistry Council. The studies were conducted under Good Laboratory Practice procedures, and include 6 acute toxicity tests of TBBPA with fish, invertebrates, algae, and microbes, eight chronic tests, and three bioconcentration studies with fish and invertebrates. Methods and empirical data for each study are detailed in an electronic supplement. Results of the NAFRA studies are compared with recent findings on TBBPA toxicity. Molluscan shell growth may be uniquely sensitive to TBBPA, more sensitive than chronic fish or crustacean toxicity endpoints. Several of the NAFRA studies and several independent studies have reported toxicities exceeding the empirical water solubility limits of TBBPA (in the range of 2.0 mg/L depending on pH). The validity of these results is discussed.     

Economic incentives drive the conversion of agriculture to aquaculture in the Indian Sundarbans: Livelihood and environmental implications of different aquaculture types

Expansion of aquaculture in the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve (SBR) is irreversibly replacing agricultural land and the drivers of this change are disputed. Based on in-depth interviews with 67 aquaculture farmers, this paper characterizes major aquaculture types in the SBR, their impacts, and identifies drivers of conversion from agricultural land. Aquaculture types included traditional, improved-traditional, modified-extensive, and semi-intensive systems. Extensive capture of wild shrimp larvae is environmentally harmful but constitutes an important livelihood. Semi-intensive aquaculture of exotic shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) has much higher unit-area profitability than other types but involves greater financial risk. Profitability is the main driver for the transition from agriculture, but environmental factors such as lowered crop yields and cyclone impacts also contributed. Many conversions from agriculture to aquaculture are illegal according to the stakeholders. Existing legislation, if enforced, could halt the loss of agriculture, while the promotion of improved-traditional aquaculture could reduce the demand for wild seed.     

Revised Air Quality Surveillance Requirements for State Implementation Plans

The National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Program is carried out by state and local air pollution control agencies in support of their State Implementation Plans (SIP’s). The current EPA regulations which specify the characteristics of these state monitoring programs are undergoing change as a result of a comprehensive review by an independent work group. These revised regulations, which are described in the paper, are intended to improve the quality, timeliness, and usability of the data generated by the states for all data users. In addition, the revised regulations seek to bring about; (a) national consistency in monitoring site locations through standardized siting procedures; (b) improved network operations by means of a minimum quality assurance program; (c) reduced network inflexibility through an annual network review process; and (d) reduced data reporting through changed data reporting procedures.     

Rhizoremediation of oil-contaminated sites: a perspective on the Gulf War environmental catastrophe on the State of Kuwait

The Gulf War brought about to the State of Kuwait some of the worst environmental pollution as a result of oil spill. Since 1995, research programs have been initiated to avoid further damage to the Kuwaiti desert and marine environment and to restore and rehabilitate the polluted land, water, and air ecosystems. During the following 15 years, different bioremediation methods both on laboratory and small field scales were tested and evaluated. The findings of these studies were implemented to establish a bio-park in which ornamental shrubs and trees were grown in bioremediated soil. This review will focus on Kuwait’s experience in rhizoremediation and its positive impacts on oil-contaminated sites.