The role of stakeholder attitudes in managing contaminated sites: survey of Romanian stakeholder awareness

The past decade has seen substantial policy effort directed at promoting the reclamation and reuse of urban brownfield or potentially contaminated land. This paper is based on the results of a survey regarding the role of stakeholder attitudes in managing contaminated sites at the Romanian level. Findings indicate that effective policies and programmes need to be framed within an understanding of the different needs of national development. While different perceptions were identified in regard to the meanings of several concepts and terms used in this field, important aspects related to the need for developing a correctly ranked and coordinated decision-making process were also identified. Additional findings indicate gaps in the legal mechanisms intended to promote brownfield rehabilitation in the course of redevelopment. At the same time, the survey respondents suggested several recommendations such as the necessity of developing a risk assessment to establish the level and extent of contamination that can endanger human health and the environmental integrity on a site and also the need for greater compatibility between land-use planning processes and environmental legislation related to contaminated site management. The paper presents general conclusions engaging all the recommendations drawn from the survey questionnaire as well as from the general current situation in Romania.     

The Relationship between Historic Industrial Site Use and Environmental Contamination

ABSTRACT

A methodology is presented for estimating the probability that particular classes of environmental contaminants will be of concern at brownfield redevelopment sites. These probabilities are predicted by a logistics model that is based on qualitative information about site history and status. This qualitative information comprises data that would be collected through a Phase I Environmental Site Assessment (ESA), including historic site use, current use and ownership status, and the nature of adjacent properties. The model is fit and demonstrated using a set of 59 former industrial sites in southwestern Pennsylvania that were collected from the files of the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (PADEP). Predictive models are developed for exceedances of contaminants as grouped into the following classes: metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, fuel hydrocarbons, and PCBs. A procedure for estimating the parametric uncertainty of the model predictions is also illustrated. This method can serve as a starting point for more effective usage of existing Phase I ESA information and for evaluation of the benefit of obtaining additional site information. By increasing the decision-making value of existing (or inexpensive) data, this method can help to reduce the information asymmetry that may be an obstacle to redevelopment.     

Improving soil investigations at brownfield sites using a flexible work strategy and screening methods inspired by the US Environmental Protection Agency's triad approach

Investigations of polluted brownfield sites and sample analyses are expensive, and the resulting data are often of poor quality. Efforts are needed, therefore, to improve the methods used in investigations of brownfield sites to both reduce costs and improve the quality of the results. One approach that could be useful for both of these purposes is the triad strategy, developed by the US Environmental Protection Agency, in which managing uncertainty is a central feature. In the investigations reported here, a field study was conducted to identify possible ways in which uncertainties could be managed in practice. One example considered involves optimizing the uncertainty by adjusting the sizes of samples and the efforts expended in analytical work according to the specific aims of the project. In addition, the potential utility of several toxicity assessment methods for screening sites was evaluated. As well as presenting the results of these assessments, in this contribution we discuss ways in which a flexible work strategy and screening methods inspired of the triad philosophy could be incorporated into the Swedish approach to remediate brownfield sites. A tiered approach taking advantage of field and screening methods is proposed to assess brownfield sites focusing on the response and acceptable uncertainty that are required for the task.     

发达国家污染土地置换开发管理实践及其对我国的启示

污染土地置换开发是一个复杂的过程,涉及技术、法律、经济和社会等诸多问题.选择管理技术相对比较成熟和先进的美国、欧盟国家、加拿大以及日本作为案例,深刻剖析国际上污染土地置换开发管理的经验与教训,提出有效的城市土地利用规划、公平合理的经济责任界定、合适的资金筹措机制、灵活选择土壤污染修复目标、污染土地风险评估等级划分、多利益方的共同参与等6点启示,以期对我国日益受到重视的污染土地置换开发管理工作提供借鉴.     

Risk assessment and interpretation of heavy metal contaminated soils on an urban brownfield site in New York metropolitan area

In this study, soil samples were collected at 22 sites in Liberty State Park, New Jersey, in 2005, for metal enrichment and potential ecological risk assessment. The geoaccumulation index (I _geo) showed that enrichment levels of trace metals followed an order of Cu > Pb > Zn > As > Cr > Hg while the potential ecological risk factor (\( {E}_r^i \)) indicated that the potential ecological risk of the metals was in the order of Cu > Pb > As > Hg > Zn > Cr. Among these 22 sites, this investigation identified 9 sites at moderate ecological risk, 3 sites at considerable ecological risk, and 4 sites at high ecological risk according to the potential ecological risk index (RI). Hierarchical cluster analysis (CA) of soil metal concentrations separated the study sites into four groups, which are supported by the significant difference in RI values. Geographically, three regions in the Liberty State Park brownfield site were determined based on the CA results and RI values. Subarea 1 had low ecological risk while subareas 2 and 3 had a greater potential for ecological risk. Significant correlations of Pb with Cr and Zn were observed in subareas 2 and 3, respectively. This study shows that statistical approaches coupled with a risk assessment index provide a more comprehensive interpretation of land contamination than a single approach in support of planning land redevelopment.     

Techniques for the stabilization and assessment of treated copper-, chromium-, and arsenic-contaminated soil

Remediation mainly based on excavation and burial of the contaminated soil is impractical with regard to the large numbers of sites identified as being in need of remediation. Therefore, alternative methods are needed for brownfield remediation. This study was conducted to assess a chemical stabilization procedure of CCA-contaminated soil using iron (Fe)-containing blaster sand (BS) or oxygen-scarfing granulate (OSG). The stabilization technique was assessed with regard to the feasibility of mixing ameliorants at an industrial scale and the efficiency of the stabilization under different redox conditions. The stability was investigated under natural conditions in 1-m3 lysimeters in a field experiment, and the effect of redox conditions was assessed in a laboratory experiment (10 L). The treatments with high additions of ameliorant (8% and 17%) were more successful in both the laboratory and field experiments, even though there was enough Fe on a stochiometric basis even at the lowest addition rates (0.1% and 1%). The particle size of the Fe and the mixing influenced the stabilization efficiency. The development of anaerobic conditions, simulated by water saturation, increases the fraction of arsenic (AsIII) and, consequently, As mobility. The use of high concentrations of OSG under aerobic conditions increased the concentrations of nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu) in the pore water. However, under anaerobic conditions, it decreased the As leaching compared with the untreated soil, and Ni and Cu leaching was not critical. The final destination of the treated soil should govern the amendment choice, that is, an OSG concentration of approximately 10% may be suitable if the soil is to be landfilled under anaerobic conditions. Alternatively, the soil mixed with 1% BS could be kept under aerobic conditions in a landfill cover or in situ at a brownfield site. In addition, the treatment with BS appeared to produce better effects in the long term than treatment with OSG.     

Integrated planning and spatial evaluation of megasite remediation and reuse options

Redevelopment of large contaminated brownfields (megasites) is often hampered by a lack of communication and harmonization among diverse stakeholders with potentially conflicting interests. Decision support is required to provide integrative yet transparent evaluation of often complex spatial information to stakeholders with different areas of expertise. It is considered crucial for successful redevelopment to identify a shared vision of how the respective contaminated site could be remediated and redeveloped. We describe a framework of assessment methods and models that analyzes and visualizes site- and land use-specific spatial information at the screening level, with the aim to support the derivation of recommendable land use layouts and to initiate further and more detailed planning. The framework integrates a GIS-based identification of areas to be remediated, an estimation of associated clean-up costs, a spatially explicit market value appraisal, and an assessment of the planned future land use's contribution to sustainable urban and regional development. Case study results show that derived options are potentially favorable in both a sustainability and an economic sense and that iterative re-planning is facilitated by the evaluation and visualization of economic, ecological and socio-economic aspects. The framework supports an efficient early judgment about whether and how abandoned land may be assigned a sustainable and marketable land use.     

Metal accumulation and performance of nestlings of passerine bird species at an urban brownfield site

The use of passerine species as bioindicators of metal bioaccumulation is often underutilized when examining the wildlife habitat value of polluted sites. In this study we tested feathers of nestlings of two common bird species (house wren and American robin) for accumulation of Pb, Zn, As, Cr, Cu, Fe in comparison of a polluted, urban brownfield with a rural, unpolluted site. House wren nestlings at the study site accumulated significantly greater concentrations of all target metals except Zn. At the polluted site we found significant species differences of metal concentrations in feathers, with house wrens accumulating greater concentrations of Pb, Fe, and Zn but slightly lesser accumulations of Cr and Cu than American robins. Although house wren nestlings demonstrated significant accumulation of metals, these concentrations showed little effect on size metrics or fledge rates during the breeding season compared to nestlings from the control site.     

Linking Fine-Scale Sub-Arctic Vegetation Distribution in Complex Topography with Surface-Air-Temperature Modelled at 50-m Resolution

This article presents the impact of the ecological investment in ironworks (dust filter installation) and construction works at a highly contaminated brownfield site on the chemical composition of household dust (HD) and street sediment (SS) in Celje, Slovenia. The evaluation is based on two sampling campaigns: the first was undertaken 1 month before the ecological investment became operational and the second 3 years later. The results show that dust filter installations reduced the content of Co, Cr, Fe, Mn, Mo, W and Zn on average by 58% in HD and by 51% in SS. No reduction was observed at sampling points in the upwind direction from the ironworks. By contrast, the impact of the construction works on the highly contaminated brownfield site was detected by a significant increase (on average by 37%) of elements connected to the brownfield contamination in SS. Such increase was not detected in HD.     

Remediation of metal contaminated soil with mineral-amended composts

This study examined the use of two composts derived from green waste and sewage sludge, amended with minerals (clinoptilolite or bentonite), for the remediation of metal-contaminated brownfield sites to transform them into greenspace. Soils contaminated with high or low levels of metals were mixed with the mineral-enhanced composts at different ratios and assessed by leaching tests, biomass production and metal accumulation of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). The results showed that the green waste compost reduced the leaching of Cd and Zn up to 48% whereas the composted sewage sludge doubled the leachate concentration of Zn. However, the same soil amended with composted sewage sludge showed an efficient reduction in plant concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb or Zn by up to 80%. The results suggest that metal immobilisation and bioavailability are governed by the formation of complexes between the metals and organic matter. The amendment with minerals had only limited effects.     

Arsenic mobility and speciation in a contaminated urban soil are affected by different methods of green waste compost application

Application of green waste compost (GWC) to brownfield land is now common practice in soil restoration. However, previous studies have demonstrated both beneficial and detrimental effects on arsenic and metal mobility. In this paper, trace element behaviour was investigated following GWC application, either as surface mulch to, or mixed into soil from a previously described brownfield site in the U.K. Significant differences in arsenic mobility were observed between treatments. Mulching caused most disturbance, significantly increasing soil pore water As, together with Fe, P, Cr, Ni and dissolved organic carbon, the latter was a critical factor enhancing As mobilization. Arsenate was the main inorganic As species in soil pore water, increasing in concentration over time. An initial flush of potentially more toxic arsenite decreased 4 weeks after compost application. Biological processes appeared to play an important role in influencing As mobility. The results point to the necessity for careful management of As-contaminated soils.     

A multi-stage sampling strategy for the delineation of soil pollution in a contaminated brownfield

A multi-stage sampling strategy, based on sequential Gaussian simulation, was presented to optimize the step-wise selection of a small numbers of additional samples to delineate soil pollution. This strategy was applied to a Belgian brownfield of 5.2 ha polluted with lead (Pb). Starting from an initial number of 240 samples in stage 1, additional samples were added, 25 per stage, and the reduction of the uncertainty in the Pb delineation was monitored. Twenty stages were used. Already in stage 6 a local optimum was found based on the median conditional coefficient of variation. An independent validation confirmed that this index was to be preferred over the median conditional variance. So for the brownfield considered our procedure indicated that 365 selected samples would have been sufficient, representing a gain of 70.7% in sampling effort compared to current practice which resulted in a sampling effort of 1245 samples.     

Quantifying the core driving force for the sustainable redevelopment of industrial heritage: implications for urban renewal

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Industrial heritage redevelopment (IHR) is the redevelopment and utilization of original industrial buildings. The sustainable development of IHR...     

Lead accumulation and association with Fe on Typha latifolia root from an urban brownfield site

Synchrotron X-ray microfluorescence and X-ray absorption near-edge microstructure spectroscopy techniques were applied to Typha latifolia (cattail) root sections and rhizosphere soils collected from a brownfield site in New Jersey to investigate lead (Pb) accumulation in T. latifolia roots and the role of iron (Fe) plaque in controlling Pb uptake. We found that Pb and Fe spatial distribution patterns in the root tissues are similar with both metals present at high concentrations mainly in the epidermis and at low concentrations in the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem), and the major Pb and Fe species in T. latifolia root are Pb(II) and Fe(III) regardless of concentration levels. The sequestration of Pb by T. latifolia roots suggests a potential low-cost remediation method (phytostabilization) to manage Pb-contaminated sediments for brownfield remediation while performing wetland rehabilitation.     

Pedogenesis, geochemical forms of heavy metals, and artifact weathering in an urban soil chronosequence, Detroit, Michigan

An urban soil chronosequence in downtown Detroit, MI was studied to determine the effects of time on pedogenesis and heavy metal sequestration. The soils developed in fill derived from mixed sandy and clayey diamicton parent materials on a level late Pleistocene lakebed plain under grass vegetation in a humid-temperate (mesic) climate. The chronosequence is comprised of soils in vacant lots (12 and 44 years old) and parks (96 and 120 years old), all located within 100 m of a roadway. An A-horizon 16 cm thick with 2% organic matter has developed after only 12 years of pedogenesis. The 12 year-old soil shows accelerated weathering of iron (e.g. nails) and cement artifacts attributed to corrosion by excess soluble salts of uncertain origin. Carbonate and Fe-oxide are immobilizing agents for heavy metals, hence it is recommended that drywall, plaster, cement and iron artifacts be left in soils at brownfield sites for their ameliorating effects.     

Risk-based Decision Process for Arsenic in Soils: Implications of Conservative Protocols

Making defensible risk-based decisions is a complex process that incorporates risk assessment into a risk management framework. Many site investigations require additional study, negotiations and/or actions for arsenic detected in soil samples, in many cases where no process related sources are identified and no other chemicals of concern are identified. Regulatory agencies develop guidance to standardize approaches to risk-based site investigations that focus on achieving “safe” concentrations. For arsenic, the action level is frequently in the “gray region”, a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) term associated with a region of high uncertainty for risk management decisions in the “decision performance curve” associated with the data quality objective (DQO) process. Recognizing the conservative nature of the risk-based screening value for arsenic, approaches to enforce this level (or proof of comparability to natural background) may have numerous consequences including ineffective use of resources, stigmas on properties or actions at industrial or hazardous sites that are inconsistent with their regional setting. Florida has developed regulations and guidance on investigation of brownfield sites and has supported a study by the University of Florida (UF) to evaluate natural background concentrations in Florida soils. This paper discusses the sources of uncertainty near the soil cleanup target levels (SCTLs) in the Florida decision-making framework.     

Altered vegetative assemblage trajectories within an urban brownfield

Recognizing the growing importance of both structure (maintenance of biodiversity) and function (fostering natural cycles) of urban ecologies, we examine coarse scale (herbaceous, shrub and forest) beta guild trajectory in an urban brownfield. The distribution of the pioneer forest assemblage dominated by Betula populifolia Marsh. and Populus spp. could be correlated positively with total soil metal load (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, lead and vanadium),whereas herbaceous and shrub guilds were negatively correlated. Distinct assemblage development trajectories above and below a critical soil metal threshold are demonstrated. In addition, we postulate that the translocation of metals into the plant tissue of several dominant species may provide a positive feedback loop, maintaining relatively high concentrations of metals in the litter and soil. Therefore assembly theory, which allows for the development of alternate stable states, may provide a better model for the establishment of restoration objectives on degraded urban sites.     

Risk-based Decision Process for Arsenic in Soils: Implications of Conservative Protocols

Making defensible risk-based decisions is a complex process that incorporates risk assessment into a risk management framework. Many site investigations require additional study, negotiations and/or actions for arsenic detected in soil samples, in many cases where no process related sources are identified and no other chemicals of concern are identified. Regulatory agencies develop guidance to standardize approaches to risk-based site investigations that focus on achieving "safe" concentrations. For arsenic, the action level is frequently in the "gray region", a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) term associated with a region of high uncertainty for risk management decisions in the "decision performance curve" associated with the data quality objective (DQO) process. Recognizing the conservative nature of the risk-based screening value for arsenic, approaches to enforce this level (or proof of comparability to natural background) may have numerous consequences including ineffective use of resources, stigmas on properties or actions at industrial or hazardous sites that are inconsistent with their regional setting. Florida has developed regulations and guidance on investigation of brownfield sites and has supported a study by the University of Florida (UF) to evaluate natural background concentrations in Florida soils. This paper discusses the sources of uncertainty near the soil cleanup target levels (SCTLs) in the Florida decision-making framework.     

The coalitional politics of the European Union’s environmental forest policy: Biodiversity conservation,timber legality,and climate protection

European forest policymaking is shaped by progressing European integration, yet with notable ideological divisions and diverging interests among countries. This paper focuses on the coalitional politics of key environmental forest issues: biodiversity conservation, timber legality, and climate protection policy. Combining the Advocacy Coalition Framework and the Shifting Coalition Theory, and informed by more than 186 key informant interviews and 73 policy documents spanning a 20-year timeframe, we examine the evolution of coalitional forest politics in Europe. We find that the basic line-up has remained stable: an environmental coalition supporting EU environmental forest policy integration and a forest sector coalition mostly opposing it. Still, strategic alliances across these coalitions have occurred for specific policy issues which have resulted in a gradual establishment of an EU environmental forest policy. We conclude with discussion of our findings and provide suggestions for further research.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13280-021-01644-5.