A cost-effectiveness analysis of alternative air quality control strategies

A number of linear programming models purport to minimize the costs of emission control to achieve ambient air quality standards. Many of the simulations incorporate the simplifying assumption that improvements in ambient air quality are proportional to reductions in regional emissions. This approach minimizes the cost of mass emission reduction, but not the cost to achieve a prescribed ambient air quality. The costs of this emissions least-cost strategy are compared to an ambient least-cost strategy which does achieve prescribed ambient air quality at minimum cost. The cost saving achieved by this strategy relative to the emissions least-cost strategy is as much as 50670. In addition, both are compared to a strategy typical of those currently used by the states, which is found to be as much as ten times as expensive as the ambient least-cost strategy.     

Cost-sharing approach for air quality control implementation A case study

The objective of the study was to investigate and develop new alternative approaches to effectively meeting the federal SOx and particulate ambient air quality standards at cost savings. Since air pollution control costs would very likely be passed along to the consumer, it is in the best interests of the consumer and industry to find the least-cost alternative policies. Cost-sharing possesses advantages not shared by other control schemes, such as emissions taxes, auctioning of “pollution certificates,” or other methods. The results of this paper indicate that the cost-sharing approach is useful for particulates control in order to minimize the burden of plants already performing substantial control who may require significant added capital investment beyond their initial amount. For SO_ξ emissions control the cost-sharing analysis calculations show significant savings in nearly all situations, whether or not stack gas treatment methods were assumed available. Furthermore, the cost-sharing approach may allow further savings when the particular cost requirements of an individual firm differ substantially from the average engineering cost estimates. A cost-sharing option should thus be included in implementation plans as an option to be used by industries at their own initiative. The spatial characteristics of emissions resulting from a particular application of the cost-sharing approach are considered. A spatial airshed emissions allocation model is discussed as a useful method of evaluating cost sharing.     

The policy implications of non-convex environmental damages: A smog control case study

Nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to form atmospheric ozone, but, for given concentrations of either one, increasing amounts of the other give rise to declining increments of ozone. Thus, the damage functions from hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions are non-convex. A case study of control strategies in the New York metropolitan regions show that, because control costs rise so steeply for both pollutants, a cost-effective approach is to control emissions of both, despite the non-convexities. However, the loss function, for deviations from the least-cost strategy, lies well within the range of scientific uncertainty regarding precursor-ozone relationships, and the least-cost strategy choice is highly sensitive to small changes in the relative control costs. Therefore, decisions regarding controls on these emissions, especially nitrogen oxide emissions, should be based also on other considerations, such as the reduction in acid deposition.     

Emissions standards and ambient environmental quality standards with stochastic environmental services

Many important environmental policies involve some combination of emission controls and ambient environmental quality standards, for instance SO₂ emissions are capped under Title IV of the U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments while ambient SO₂ concentrations are limited under National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). This paper examines the relative performance of emissions standards and ambient standards when the natural environment provides stochastic environmental services for assimilating pollution. For receiving media characterized by greater dispersion in the distribution of environmental services, the optimal emissions policy becomes more stringent, whereas the optimal ambient policy generally becomes more lax. In terms of economic performance, emissions policies are superior to ambient policies for relatively non-toxic pollutants, whereas ambient standards welfare dominate emissions standards for sufficiently toxic pollutants. In the case of combined policies that jointly implement emissions standards and ambient standards, we show that the optimal level of each standard relaxes relative to its counterpart in a unilateral policy, allowing for greater emissions levels and higher pollution concentrations in the environmental medium.     

Emissions standards and ambient environmental quality standards with stochastic environmental services

Many important environmental policies involve some combination of emission controls and ambient environmental quality standards, for instance SO₂ emissions are capped under Title IV of the U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments while ambient SO₂ concentrations are limited under National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). This paper examines the relative performance of emissions standards and ambient standards when the natural environment provides stochastic environmental services for assimilating pollution. For receiving media characterized by greater dispersion in the distribution of environmental services, the optimal emissions policy becomes more stringent, whereas the optimal ambient policy generally becomes more lax. In terms of economic performance, emissions policies are superior to ambient policies for relatively non-toxic pollutants, whereas ambient standards welfare dominate emissions standards for sufficiently toxic pollutants. In the case of combined policies that jointly implement emissions standards and ambient standards, we show that the optimal level of each standard relaxes relative to its counterpart in a unilateral policy, allowing for greater emissions levels and higher pollution concentrations in the environmental medium.     

Adjustment costs and optimal waste treatment

Consideration is given to various reasons for changing standards on emissions, effluents, and ambient air and water quality. It is proposed that adjustment costs may be of significant practical importance in determining the optimal time path of waste treatment (at least currently). The problem of minimizing the present value of the sum of treatment plus damage plus adjustment costs is placed in a calculus of variations framework and the optimal time path of waste treatment is characterized as well as the corresponding optimal tax. An example is used to illustrate some features of the solution.     

On marketable air-pollution permits: The case for a system of pollution offsets

After examining the properties of several alternative forms of marketable permit systems for the control of air pollution, this paper proposes a system of pollution offsets as the most promising approach. Under the pollution-offset scheme, sources of emissions are free to trade emissions permits subject to the constraint of no violations of the predetermined air-quality standard at any receptor point. The paper shows that the pollution-offset system has the capacity to achieve the predetermined standards of air quality at the minimum aggregate abatement cost, while making comparatively modest demands both on the sources and on the administering agency.     

An Empirical Analysis of Exposure-Based Regulation to Abate Toxic Air Pollution

Title III of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments requires the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate 189 air toxics, including emissions from by-product coke ovens. Economists criticize the inefficiency of uniform standards, but Title III makes no provision for flexible regulatory instruments. Environmental health scientists suggest that population exposure, not necessarily ambient air quality, should motivate environmental air pollution policies. Using an engineering-economic model of the United States steel industry, we estimate that an exposure-based policy can achieve the same level of public health as coke oven emissions standards and can reduce compliance costs by up to 60.0%.     

An empirical analysis of economic strategies for controlling air pollution

In evaluating current environmental protection policy, economists often note that current regulations are more costly than necessary to meet environmental quality standards. While the a priori case is strong that current regulatory approaches are resulting in higher-than-necessary costs to attain environmental standards, there is relatively little empirical evidence to support this claim. The purpose of this paper is to supply some of the missing evidence by presenting the results of one study that assesses some of the potential savings associated with implementing economic, rather than command-and-control, regulatory approaches to abate one type of air pollution in one region of the country. Specifically, the paper examines the costs of meeting a prospective short-term standard for nitrogen dioxide under a range of alternative emissions control strategies for stationary sources of nitrogen oxide emissions in the Chicago Air Quality Control Region. The alternative strategies that are considered range from those that might result under current regulatory policy to those that economic policy approaches (such as emissions charges or marketable permits) are designed to implement. The analysis shows that the most efficient program of emissions controls may be more than an order of magnitude less costly than current regulatory strategies, and that economic approaches have additional advantages over more conventional regulatory approaches.     

Cost-Effective Policies to Improve Urban Air Quality in Santiago, Chile

This paper examines the applicability of market-based incentives for controlling emissions of particulate matter from fixed sources, in a developing-country context. It uses Santiago, Chile as a case study. A linear programming model has been developed to establish the costs of achieving different air quality targets using marketable permits and command-and-control (CAC) policies. The main conclusion is that an ambient permit system (APS) substantially reduces compliance costs of achieving a given air quality target at each receptor location in the city. Consequently, the use of permits is warranted. However, spatial differentiation of permits is required, thus complicating the design and use of such an instrument. Moreover, the reduction in compliance costs under APS is significantly less when the air quality targets imposed for each receptor location are the same as those achieved by other CAC policies.     

Metals concentration associated with respirable particulate matter (PM10) in industrial area of Eastern U.P. India

The present study deals with the assessment of ambient air quality with respect to respirable suspended particulate matter (RSPM or PM10 < or = 10 microm) and trace metals (Fe, Zn, Cu, Cr Ni, Cd, Mn and Pb) concentrations in RSPM at five locations of Renukoot, an industrial area of Eastern Uttar Pradesh. The 24 hr mean concentrations of PM10 ranged between 69.3 to 118.9 microg m(-3), which is well within the permissible limit (150 microg m(-3)) of national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) but found higher than the prescribed annual daily limit of US EPA (50 microg m(-3)). The ambient air was mostly dominated by the Fe and least by the Cd among the metal analysed. Murdhawa, a commercial place influenced by vehicular population, is found to be the most polluted area of Renukoot and Dongia nalla (forest area) the least. The ambient air of Murdhawa is rich in Cu and Ni, indicating contribution of mobile sources. The Rammandir a residential place near the industry, is rich in Cd and Cr suggesting contribution of point sources. The Ni concentration is found to be alarmingly high in the air at all the locations except Dongia nallah, when compared with the EC (European Commission) limit (20 ng m(-3)). The Cd concentration is found to be higher only at Rammandir as compared with the EC limit (5 ng m(-3)). Mean concentrations of Zn, Pb and Mn are found to be almost equal in the ambient air of all the locations, suggesting the significance of sources contributing to presence of these metals. Zn, Cu, Pb and Ni having a significant correlation with PM10 indicate the same source contributing these metals as well as PM10. The present study has focused on the quantitative variation in different metals in the PM10, which is extremely harmful due to their toxic and carcinogenic nature.     

淡水水生态基准方法学研究:数据筛选与模型计算

水生态基准研究的核心是水生态基准方法学,如何鉴于现有的生态毒理学数据推导出科学合理的基准值,并达到切实保护水生生物的目的,是水生态基准研究的重点。论文从淡水水生态基准方法学中数据筛选和模型计算出发,系统地阐述和比较了现有方法学中关于数据的数量和质量、本土物种数据和非本土物种数据、实验室试验数据和野外现场试验数据、常规测试指标和非常规测试指标以及数据的整理等数据筛选原则,并对评估因子法、物种敏感度分布曲线、种间关联预测以及生态毒理模型等水生态基准的计算模型进行比较。参照国外水质基准推导的过程及我国水生态系统的特征,发展我国水生态基准研究中数据的筛选原则以及科学合理的基准计算方法,以期为建立我国淡水水生态基准推导方法学提供研究基础和科学依据。     

Impact of vehicular exhaust on ambient air quality of Rohtak city, India

In the present study, ambient air quality of Rohtak city (Haryana) was monitored by High Volume Sampler. The selected parameters to judge the quality of air were Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen dioxide NO), Ozone (O3) and Suspended particulate matters (SPM) which give a fair idea of pollution load carried by the air. The monitoring data were collected from six sites randomly selected in Rohtak city. Sulphur dioxide was found below the permissible limits of National Ambient Avo Quality Standards (NAAQS) at all the sites. Higher concentration of SO2 was observed during winter in comparison to summer and monsoon seasons. Nitrogen dioxide concentration was found to be above the prescribed standards of NAAOS at four sites in winter season. Ozone concentration was found below the prescribed standards (NAAOS), but its concentration was higher in summer season as compared to winter. Suspended particulate matter concentration was observed above the safety limits at all the sites in all three seasons.     

Emission standards and price distortion

A simple model is presented which demonstrates that emission standards can either reduce or increase the distortions inherent in preregulatory relative prices. This model is used in conjunction with data for controlling air pollution in the St. Louis airshed under a least-cost set of emission standards. By applying a heuristic formula, it is concluded that this set of standards is distortion neutral. Although there is reason to believe that conventional emission standards are distortion reducing, it is clear that Pigouvian fees achieve technical efficiency in abatement as well as the elimination of price distortion.     

Efficiency of pollution taxation and market structure

This paper looks at the performance of a uniform pollution tax in achieving a given level of pollution abatement at least cost. It is shown that market structure is an important consideration in this performance and that in general least-cost abatement will not result from a pollution tax uniformly applied. The pattern of pollution taxes that will achieve least-cost abatement when differing degrees of market power exist among polluters is developed and discussed.     

Functional zoning for air quality

Environmental local agencies have to enforce European directives that impose a land classification, according to air quality status, to distinguish zones needing further actions from those needing only maintenance. This paper presents a land classification in zones featured by different criticality levels of atmospheric pollution, considering pollutant time series as functional data: we call this proposal “Functional Zoning”. Our proposal is articulated in order to also meet two specific requirements: upscaling pollutant concentration data to the municipality scale, since municipalities are the reference territorial administrative units for undertaking actions; aggregating different pollutants in order to provide a multi-pollutant zoning outcome reflecting the air quality status. Specifically, we present three different alternatives to upscale data from a regular grid to the municipality scale. Then, to aggregate by pollutant, we evaluate two strategies summarizing time series: the assessment of an air quality index and the use of the Multivariate Functional Principal Component Analysis (MFPCA). The partition of municipalities is obtained by clustering air quality time series and MFPCA scores. In particular, the proposed functional zoning is carried out for Piemonte (Northern Italy), considering the hourly concentration fields of the main pollutants. We obtain six classifications of the same land and we propose a comparison study of the different strategies’ results, by mapping and analyzing the differences between clusters’ labels. By taking into account the comparison study’s findings, we finally suggest an analysis strategy to environmental agencies and policy makers to obtain an easily interpretable outcome at a very reasonable computational cost.     

Target the neglected VOCs emission from iron and steel industry in China for air quality improvement

● Haze formation in China is highly correlated with iron and steel industry. ● VOCs generated in sinter process were neglected under current emission standard. ● Co-elimination removal of sinter flue gas complex pollutants are timely needed. Recent years have witnessed significant improvement in China’s air quality. Strict environmental protection measures have led to significant decreases in sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), and particulate matter (PM) emissions since 2013. But there is no denying that the air quality in 135 cities is inferior to reaching the Ambient Air Quality Standards (GB 3095–2012) in 2020. In terms of temporal, geographic, and historical aspects, we have analyzed the potential connections between China’s air quality and the iron and steel industry. The non-target volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emissions from iron and steel industry, especially from the iron ore sinter process, may be an underappreciated index imposing a negative effect on the surrounding areas of China. Therefore, we appeal the authorities to pay more attention on VOCs emission from the iron and steel industry and establish new environmental standards. And different iron steel flue gas pollutants will be eliminated concurrently with the promotion and application of new technology.     

Transferable discharge permits and economic efficiency: The fox river

Recent emphasis on reforms of environmental regulation has led to suggestions for strategies which maintain environmental standards but allow the needed flexibility and cost effectiveness. The transferable discharge permit (TDP) is one such strategy for water pollution control recently adopted in Wisconsin. In this article, the potential for substantial cost savings from trading TDPs is demonstrated using data on the Fox River in Wisconsin. A simulation model of water quality (Qual-III) and a linear programming model of abatement costs determine the optimum pattern of discharge. Reaching that optimum from proposed pollution abatement orders is shown to be feasible. Varying conditions of flow and temperature can be accommodated using trade coefficients which can be accurately estimated through interpolation. The calculations demonstrate the value and feasibility of flexible regulations governing water pollution abatement.     

API-based assessment on urban air environment bearing capability in China

Given the complexity and time-consuming of the conventional environmental capacity based assessment on air environment carrying capacity; a new method for assessing urban air environment carrying capacity based on air pollution index (API) is presented. By using this new method, the air environmental bearing capability of 333 cities at the prefecture level and above is assessed. The results show that of the 333 cities 9.6% is of high bearing capability, 34.5% relatively high bearing capability, 52.6% medium bearing capability, 2.7% low capability, and 0.6% is of weak bearing capability; in terms of regional distribution, the western region is of relatively high air environment bearing capability, followed by north-eastern and eastern regions, and the ambient air quality in the middle region is quite poor; among the 12 urban agglomerations in key regions, Pearl River delta, west side of Taiwan Strait and Chengdu-Chongqing agglomerations are of relatively high carrying capacity while other agglomerations are of medium bearing capability. The assessment results imply that the existing air quality standard (GB3095-1996) is quite unsound.     

光离子色谱在室内空气苯分析中的应用

用GC-PID和GC-FID两种方法分析了室内空气中的苯,实验表明,两种方法的分析结果具有很好的相关性;运用GC-PID方法,分析北京市一些室内空气中的苯,结果表明,装修对室内空气中苯的浓度影响较大,特别是装修不到一年的办公室,其空气中苯的浓度超标率最高,达到30．3％．