Use of the Deciview Haze Index as an Indicator for Regional Haze

ABSTRACT

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPR) for regional haze uses the deciview haze index (dv) as the indicator for visibility impairment and proposes a change of 1 dv as "a small but noticeable change in haziness under most circumstances." All previous visibility rules have specified human perception as the indicator for visibility impairment. This article examines the technical basis cited in the NPR for this new indicator for visibility impairment and for the perception threshold of approximately 1 dv. Derivations based on the assumptions and approximations cited in the NPR show that the deciview haze index does not have the correct functional form to relate changes in haze within federal Class I areas to the visual perception of those changes. The just-noticeable change in light extinction is, in most cases, inversely proportional to the sight path length instead of proportional to the light-extinction coefficient. These derivations also indicate that a 1-dv change in haziness is typically too small to be perceived in most Class I areas.     

Psychophysics,visibility and perceived atmospheric transparency

Layered or regional haze often appears to be a separate, semi-transparent layer overlying a background of mountains and sky. When perceived in this way, the apparent brightness and color of the haze layer and features seen through the haze can be profoundly influenced by the perception of transparency and depth in the scene. Changes in achromatic brightness related to perceived transparency can be quantitatively estimated by the theory of color scission. This theory predicts, for example, that mountains seen through a veil of white haze appear darker than they would if transparency and depth perception were not involved. Also, using the theory, an index of perceptual transparency of the haze can be defined. The results of an experiment to test predictions of the theory are reported. Observers estimated the apparent brightness of distant mountains using a 32-step Munsell brightness scale while a teleradiometer recorded physical light intensities from the mountain and nearby sky. Calculations based on the experimental observations support the theory of color scission as an explanation of perceived transparency. Transparency effects typically alter subjectively determined brightness of mountains seen through haze by 10–40 % with changes as large as 60% observed. As such, these perceptual effects are as large or larger than those expected from changes in pollution levels. Also, the calculated index of perceptual transparency is seen to be related to physical contrast, although further work is needed to fully explore its connections with this and other physical parameters.     

Estimating the probability of the public perceiving a decrease in atmospheric haze

Regional haze regulations require progress toward reducing atmospheric haze as measured by particle scattering coefficient of visible light. From a practical perspective, this raises the following question: Given a decrease in extinction, what is the probability that people will notice an improvement in visibility? This paper proposes a quantitative definition of the probability of a perceptible increase in visibility given a decrease in light extinction and a general method to estimate this probability from perception measurements made in the field under realistic conditions. Using data from a recent study of visibility perception by 8 observers, it is estimated that a 2-4 deciview change gives a 67% maximum probability of detecting the improvement. Stated another way, the odds of seeing a difference are at most 2:1 for a change of 2-4 deciviews. A 90% probability requires a change of at least 3.5-7.0 deciviews. The limitations and possible bias in the results of this study are discussed. These results may have a major effect on the cost-benefit analysis of regulatory actions to improve visibility.     

Can transportation infrastructure reduce haze pollution in China?

Traffic emission is one of the main sources of haze pollution, but few studies have evaluated the dynamic impact and mechanism of transportation infrastructure on haze pollution based on a spatial perspective. This study selects the annual data of 30 provinces in China from 2000 to 2017 and uses a dynamic spatial Durbin model to study the dynamic impact of transportation infrastructure on haze pollution. The results show that transportation infrastructure has a significant spatial spillover effect on haze pollution, and the spatial spillover effect has regional heterogeneity. Specifically, whether long term or short term, highway traffic has a boosting effect on haze pollution, while railway traffic has an inhibitory effect on haze pollution. In addition, transportation infrastructure can affect haze pollution through three paths: expanding economic scale, promoting transformation of industrial structure, and promoting technological progress. At the regional level, the improvement of highway traffic density in eastern, central, and western regions will significantly increase haze pollution. The enhancement of railway traffic density has a significant inhibitory and boosting effect on haze pollution in central and western regions, respectively. For the eastern region, railway traffic construction can only restrain local haze pollution, but cannot exert the spatial spillover effect of railway traffic to reduce haze. The conclusions of this paper provide policy inspirations for giving full play to the haze reduction effect of transportation infrastructure and the development of green transportation.

     

Precipitation in light extinction reconstruction

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published the Regional Haze Rule (RHR) in 1999. The RHR default goal is to reduce haze linearly to natural background in 2064 from the baseline period of 2000-2004. The EPA default method for estimating natural and baseline visibility uses the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) formula. The IMPROVE formula predicts the light extinction coefficient from aerosol chemical concentrations measured by the IMPROVE network. The IMPROVE light scattering coefficient formula using data from 1994-2002 underestimated the measured light scattering coefficient by 700 Mm(-1), on average, on days with precipitation. Also, precipitation occurred as often on the clearest as haziest days. This led to estimating the light extinction coefficient of precipitation, averaged over all days, as the light scattering coefficient on days with precipitation (700 Mm(-1)) multiplied by the percent of precipitation days in a year. This estimate added to the IMPROVE formula light extinction estimate gives a real world estimate of visibility for the 20% clearest, 20% haziest, and all days. For example, in 1993, the EPAs Report to Congress projected visibility in Class I areas would improve by 3 deciviews by 2010 across the haziest portions of the eastern United States because of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. Omitted was the light extinction coefficient of precipitation. Adding in the estimated light extinction coefficient of precipitation, the estimated visibility improvement declines to <1 deciview.     

Which visibility indicators best represent a population’s preference for a level of visual air quality?

Several studies have been carried out over the past 20 or so years to assess the level of visual air quality that is judged to be acceptable in urban settings. Groups of individuals were shown slides or computer-projected scenes under a variety of haze conditions and asked to judge whether each image represented acceptable visual air quality. The goal was to assess the level of haziness found to be acceptable for purposes of setting an urban visibility regulatory standard. More recently, similar studies were carried out in Beijing, China, and the more pristine Grand Canyon National Park and Great Gulf Wilderness. The studies clearly showed that when preference ratings were compared to measures of atmospheric haze such as atmospheric extinction, visual range, or deciview (dv), there was not a single indicator that represented acceptable levels of visual air quality for the varied urban or more remote settings. For instance, using a Washington, D.C., setting, 50% of the observers rated the landscape feature as not having acceptable visual air quality at an extinction of 0.19 km^?1 (21 km visual range, 29 dv), while the 50% acceptability point for a Denver, Colorado, setting was 0.075 km^?1 (52 km visual range, 20 dv) and for the Grand Canyon it was 0.023 km^?1 (170 km visual range, 7 dv). Over the past three or four decades, many scene-specific visibility indices have been put forth as potential indicators of visibility levels as perceived by human observers. They include, but are not limited to, color and achromatic contrast of single landscape features, average and equivalent contrast of the entire image, edge detection algorithms such as the Sobel index, and just-noticeable difference or change indexes. This paper explores various scene-specific visual air quality indices and examines their applicability for use in quantifying visibility preference levels and judgments of visual air quality.

Implications: Visibility acceptability studies clearly show that visibility become more unacceptable as haze increases. However, there are large variations in the preference levels for different scenes when universal haze indicators, such as atmospheric extinction, are used. This variability is significantly reduced when the sky–landscape contrast of the more distant landscape features in the observed scene is used. Analysis suggest that about 50% of individuals would find the visibility unacceptable if at any time the more distant landscape features nearly disappear, that is, they are at the visual range. This common metric could form the basis for setting an urban visibility standard.     

Recommended metric for tracking visibility progress in the Regional Haze Rule

For many national parks and wilderness areas with special air quality protections (Class I areas) in the western United States (U.S.), wildfire smoke and dust events can have a large impact on visibility. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) 1999 Regional Haze Rule used the 20% haziest days to track visibility changes over time even if they are dominated by smoke or dust. Visibility on the 20% haziest days has remained constant or degraded over the last 16 yr at some Class I areas despite widespread emission reductions from anthropogenic sources. To better track visibility changes specifically associated with anthropogenic pollution sources rather than natural sources, the EPA has revised the Regional Haze Rule to track visibility on the 20% most anthropogenically impaired (hereafter, most impaired) days rather than the haziest days. To support the implementation of this revised requirement, the EPA has proposed (but not finalized) a recommended metric for characterizing the anthropogenic and natural portions of the daily extinction budget at each site. This metric selects the 20% most impaired days based on these portions using a “delta deciview” approach to quantify the deciview scale impact of anthropogenic light extinction. Using this metric, sulfate and nitrate make up the majority of the anthropogenic extinction in 2015 on these days, with natural extinction largely made up of organic carbon mass in the eastern U.S. and a combination of organic carbon mass, dust components, and sea salt in the western U.S. For sites in the western U.S., the seasonality of days selected as the 20% most impaired is different than the seasonality of the 20% haziest days, with many more winter and spring days selected. Applying this new metric to the 2000–2015 period across sites representing Class I areas results in substantial changes in the calculated visibility trend for the northern Rockies and southwest U.S., but little change for the eastern U.S.

Implications: Changing the approach for tracking visibility in the Regional Haze Rule allows the EPA, states, and the public to track visibility on days when reductions in anthropogenic emissions have the greatest potential to improve the view. The calculations involved with the recommended metric can be incorporated into the routine IMPROVE (Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments) data processing, enabling rapid analysis of current and future visibility trends. Natural visibility conditions are important in the calculations for the recommended metric, necessitating the need for additional analysis and potential refinement of their values.     

长沙地区雾霾特征及影响因子分析

根据长沙地区1970—2012年气象观测资料及环境监测数据,对近43年长沙雾霾特征及影响因子进行了分析。结果表明,长沙地区雾的年际变化具有显著的倒"U"型特征,霾整体上呈上升趋势;雾霾天气主要集中在秋冬季节,春夏季节较少;从空间分布来看,望城区(县)和宁乡县雾霾天气最多,浏阳市次之,长沙市区最少。在一次持续性雾霾天气过程中(10.2~10.12),相对湿度、PM2.5质量浓度与能见度呈现显著负相关,说明PM2.5质量浓度和相对湿度是雾霾天气形成的首要影响因子。     

Reconciliation and interpretation of the Big Bend National Park light extinction source apportionment: results from the Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational Study--part II

The recently completed Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational (BRAVO) Study focused on particulate sulfate source attribution for a 4-month period from July through October 1999. A companion paper in this issue by Schichtel et al. describes the methods evaluation and results reconciliation of the BRAVO Study sulfate attribution approaches. This paper summarizes the BRAVO Study extinction budget assessment and interprets the attribution results in the context of annual and multiyear causes of haze by drawing on long-term aerosol monitoring data and regional transport climatology, as well as results from other investigations. Particulate sulfates, organic carbon, and coarse mass are responsible for most of the haze at Big Bend National Park, whereas fine particles composed of light-absorbing carbon, fine soils, and nitrates are relatively minor contributors. Spring and late summer through fall are the two periods of high-haze levels at Big Bend. Particulate sulfate and carbonaceous compounds contribute in a similar magnitude to the spring haze period, whereas sulfates are the primary cause of haze during the late summer and fall period. Atmospheric transport patterns to Big Bend vary throughout the year, resulting in a seasonal cycle of different upwind source regions contributing to its haze levels. Important sources and source regions for haze at Big Bend include biomass smoke from Mexico and Central America in the spring and African dust during the summer. Sources of sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions in Mexico, Texas, and in the Eastern United States all contribute to Big Bend haze in varying amounts over different times of the year, with a higher contribution from Mexican sources in the spring and early summer, and a higher contribution from U.S. sources during late summer and fall. Some multiple-day haze episodes result from the influence of several source regions, whereas others are primarily because of emissions from a single source region.     

Critique of “Precipitation in Light Extinction Reconstruction” by P.A. Ryan

Abstract

The goal of the Regional Haze Rule (RHR) is to return visibility in class I areas (CIAs) to natural levels, excluding weather-related events, by 2064. Whereas visibility, the seeing of scenic vistas, is a near instantaneous and sight-path-dependent phenomenon, reasonable progress toward the RHR goal is assessed by tracking the incremental changes in 5-yr average visibility. Visibility is assessed using a haze metric estimated from 24-hr average aerosol measurements that are made at one location representative of the CIA. It is assumed that, over the 5-yr average, the aerosol loadings and relative humidity along all of the site paths are the same and can be estimated from the 24-hr measurements. It is further assumed that any time a site path may be obscured by weather (e.g., clouds and precipitation), there are other site paths within the CIA that are not. Therefore, when calculating the haze metric, sampling days are not filtered for weather conditions. This assumption was tested by examining precipitation data from multiple monitors for four CIAs. It is shown that, in general, precipitation did not concurrently occur at all monitors for a CIA, and precipitation typically occurred 3-8 hr or less in a day. In a recent paper in this journal, Ryan asserts that the haze metric should include contributions from precipitation and conducted a quantitative assessment incorrectly based on the assumption that the Optec NGN-2 nephelometer measurements include the effects of precipitation. However, these instruments are programmed to shut down during rain events, and any data logged are in error. He further assumes that precipitation occurs as often on the haziest days as the clearest days and that precipitation light scattering (bprecip) is independent of geographic location and applied an average bprecip derived for Great Smoky Mountains to diverse locations including the Grand Canyon. Both of these assumptions are shown to be in error.     

Investigating the haze transport from 1997 biomass burning in Southeast Asia: its impact upon Singapore

The 1997 Indonesia forest fires was an environmental disaster of exceptional proportions. Such a disaster caused massive transboundary air pollution and indiscriminate destruction of biodiversity in the world. The immediate consequence of the fires was the production of large amounts of haze in the region, causing visibility and health problems within Southeast Asia. Furthermore, fires of these magnitudes are potential contributors to global warming and climate change due to the emission of large amounts of greenhouse gases and other pyrogenic products.The long-range transport of fire-related haze in the region is investigated using trajectories from the CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research Limited Area Model (DARLAM). Emission scenarios were constructed for hotspot areas in Sumatra and Kalimantan for the months of September and October 1997 to determine the period and fire locations most critical to Singapore. This study also examines some transport issues raised from field observations. Results show that fires in the coastal areas of southeast Sumatra and southwest Kalimantan can be potential contributors to transboundary air pollution in Singapore. Singapore was directly affected by haze from these areas whereas Kuala Lumpur was heavily affected by the haze coming from Sumatra. In most cases, Singapore was more affected by fires from Kalimantan than was Kuala Lumpur. This was mainly a result of the shifting of monsoons. The transition of monsoons resulted in weaker low-level winds and shifted convergence zones near to the southeast of Peninsular Malaysia. In addition to severe drought and massive fire activity in 1997, the timing of the monsoon transition has a strong influence on haze transport in the region.     

Contributions to CO concentrations from biomass burning and traffic during haze episodes in Singapore

Prediction of ambient carbon monoxide (CO) due to haze in the presence of transportation sources at a busy expressway site in Singapore was made using street Canyon and Gaussian line source modules of a regional-scale Indic Airviro dispersion model for the haze episodes that occurred in the years 1994 and 1997. The fleet average emission factors for each vehicle category were estimated from US EPA MOBILE 5 A guidelines as a function of speed, vehicle deterioration rates and model years. One hour CO concentrations during the non-haze period for the year 1995 were first simulated and compared with measured readings to test the accuracy of the proposed approach. The calibrated model was then used to compute hourly CO values for the 1994 and 1997 haze episodes. The difference between the modeled CO values with and without haze provided CO contribution due to haze. An analysis of CO values estimated through modeling with experimental measurements made during haze periods confirmed this unique approach to establish concentration of CO due to haze in the presence of transportation sources.     

Polycentric agglomeration and haze pollution: evidence from China

Polycentric agglomeration has gradually become a salient feature of rapid growth in urbanization in China. Using province-level balanced panel data over the period 2000–18, we examine the impact of polycentric agglomeration on haze pollution and its mechanism of action. The results show that the impact of polycentric agglomeration on haze pollution exhibits a significant inverted U-shaped feature. Nevertheless, except for a few provinces where polycentric agglomeration exceeds the turning point, the degree of polycentric concentration in most provinces lies to the left of the turning point. Further, a mediating effect model illustrates that industrial structure rationalization and technological progress are effective paths through which polycentric agglomeration affects haze pollution. Finally, we demonstrate that the effect of polycentric agglomeration on haze pollution is influenced by transportation and communication infrastructure; improved transportation and communication infrastructure contributes to the haze control effect of polycentric agglomeration.

     

Critique of "Precipitation in light extinction reconstruction" by P.A. Ryan

The goal of the Regional Haze Rule (RHR) is to return visibility in class I areas (CIAs) to natural levels, excluding weather-related events, by 2064. Whereas visibility, the seeing of scenic vistas, is a near instantaneous and sight-path-dependent phenomenon, reasonable progress toward the RHR goal is assessed by tracking the incremental changes in 5-yr average visibility. Visibility is assessed using a haze metric estimated from 24-hr average aerosol measurements that are made at one location representative of the CIA. It is assumed that, over the 5-yr average, the aerosol loadings and relative humidity along all of the site paths are the same and can be estimated from the 24-hr measurements. It is further assumed that any time a site path may be obscured by weather (e.g., clouds and precipitation), there are other site paths within the CIA that are not. Therefore, when calculating the haze metric, sampling days are not filtered for weather conditions. This assumption was tested by examining precipitation data from multiple monitors for four CIAs. It is shown that, in general, precipitation did not concurrently occur at all monitors for a CIA, and precipitation typically occurred 3-8 hr or less in a day. In a recent paper in this journal, Ryan asserts that the haze metric should include contributions from precipitation and conducted a quantitative assessment incorrectly based on the assumption that the Optec NGN-2 nephelometer measurements include the effects of precipitation. However, these instruments are programmed to shut down during rain events, and any data logged are in error. He further assumes that precipitation occurs as often on the haziest days as the clearest days and that precipitation light scattering (bprecip) is independent of geographic location and applied an average bprecip derived for Great Smoky Mountains to diverse locations including the Grand Canyon. Both of these assumptions are shown to be in error.     

天津市灰霾评价等级指标体系研究

根据天津市2003—2007年灰霾日的污染物浓度和气象资料,应用主成分分析方法得出影响灰霾的5个主要因子(SO2、相对湿度、总云量、PM10和风速)。对相对湿度、总云量和风速3个气象因子的历史资料进行频数统计分析,并建立了各气象因子的等级划分标准。利用灰色聚类法构建了天津市灰霾评价的等级指标体系,灰霾等级划分结果表明,天津市轻度灰霾和重度灰霾出现天数相对较少,均以中度灰霾为主;轻度灰霾大多出现在春季和夏季;重度灰霾主要出现在冬季,春季出现的比例最小;综合评价分析,冬季灰霾污染程度最为严重。     

Using Available Information to Assess the Potential Effects of Climate Change on Vegetation in the High Arctic: North Billjefjorden, Central Spitsbergen (Svalbard)

We review the available data that can be used to assess the potential impact of climate change on vegetation, and we use central Spitsbergen, Svalbard, as a model location for the High Arctic. We used two sources of information: recent and short-term historical records, which enable assessment on scales of particular plant communities and the landscape over a period of decades, and palynological and macrofossil analyses, which enable assessment on time scales of hundreds and thousands of years and on the spatial scale of the landscape. Both of these substitutes for standardized monitoring revealed stability of vegetation, which is probably attributable to the harsh conditions and the distance of the area from sources of diaspores of potential new incomers. The only evident recent vegetation changes related to climate change are associated with succession after glacial retreats. By establishing a network of permanent plots, researchers will be able to monitor immigration of new species from diversity 'hot spots' and from an abandoned settlement nearby. This will greatly enhance our ability to understand the effects of climate change on vegetation in the High Arctic.     

The effects of lake acidification on aquatic macrophytes--a review

Acidification of lakes results in a number of chemical, physical and biological changes. This review initially outlines the major floristic changes that occur in acidifying and limed lakes. The different types of evidence (historical comparisons, inter-lake comparisons and palaeoecological studies) are considered. These studies emphasise the replacement of calcicole species and others such as the isoetids with Juncus bulbosus and Sphagnun spp. in acidifying lakes. The review then discusses the way in which the various alterations in lake conditions affect the physiology of the macrophytes, particularly with changes in the availability of carbon, a change from nitrate to ammonium as a nitrogen source and the effects of an alteration in the Lake light climate. The population biology, community ecology and ecosystem functioning of macrophytes are discussed, especially where competitive processes may seem more important in determining community change than physiological processes. Particular consideration is paid to the types of evidence of floristic change that are useful and the importance of undertaking experimental studies at the correct scale to determine which factors may be causally related to the floristic evidence.     

Study of the relationship of distant SO2 emissions to Dallas-Fort Worth winter haze

A study was conducted to estimate the changes in wintertime visual air quality in Dallas-Fort Worth (DFW) that might occur due to proposed reductions in SO2 emissions at two steam electric generating plants in eastern Texas, each over 100 km from the city. To provide information for designing subsequent investigations, the haze was characterized broadly during the first year of the study. Meteorological data acquired then demonstrated that, during haze episodes, emissions from only one of the two plants were likely to be transported directly to DFW. Therefore, the second year of the study was centered on just one of the power plants. Air quality was then characterized within the urban area and at rural locations that would be upwind and downwind of the plant during transport to DFW. An instrumented aircraft measured plume dispersion and the air surrounding the plume on selected days. A mathematical model was used to predict the change that would occur in airborne particulate matter concentrations in DFW if SO2 emissions were reduced to reflect the proposed limitations. The contribution of particles in the atmosphere to light extinction was estimated, and simulated photographs were produced to illustrate the visibility changes. The study concluded that the proposed emission reductions would, at most, subtly change perceived wintertime visibility.     

Study of the Relationship of Distant SO2 Emissions to Dallas-Fort Worth Winter Haze

ABSTRACT

A study was conducted to estimate the changes in wintertime visual air quality in Dallas-Fort Worth (DFW) that might occur due to proposed reductions in SO₂ emissions at two steam electric generating plants in eastern Texas, each over 100 km from the city. To provide information for designing subsequent investigations, the haze was characterized broadly during the first year of the study. Meteorological data acquired then demonstrated that, during haze episodes, emissions from only one of the two plants were likely to be transported directly to DFW. Therefore, the second year of the study was centered on just one of the power plants. Air quality was then characterized within the urban area and at rural locations that would be upwind and downwind of the plant during transport to DFW. An instrumented aircraft measured plume dispersion and the air surrounding the plume on selected days. A mathematical model was used to predict the change that would occur in airborne particulate matter concentrations in DFW if SO₂ emissions were reduced to reflect the proposed limitations. The contribution of particles in the atmosphere to light extinction was estimated, and simulated photographs were produced to illustrate the visibility changes. The study concluded that the proposed emission reductions would, at most, subtly change perceived wintertime visibility.