纳米金属颗粒在土壤-植物系统中的迁移转化及生物效应研究进展

纳米金属颗粒的安全性是我国纳米产业发展亟需解决的重要课题,认识纳米金属颗粒在土壤-植物系统中的迁移转化和生物效应是其安全性研究的重要内容. 本文系统阐述了纳米金属颗粒在土壤中的迁移转化、在植物中的运输过程和机制以及在植物中的生物转化及其对植物的生物学效应,并在此基础上提出未来研究展望. 结果表明:①复杂的土壤环境(pH、离子强度、离子价态、温度、溶解性有机质)能够影响纳米金属颗粒在土壤中的迁移及其形态转化(吸附/解吸、分散/沉降、解离和氧化/还原);②纳米金属颗粒首先吸附在植物的根部,再通过质外体或共质体途经向植物内部转移,由木质部和韧皮部组成的维管系统进行转运;③根际分泌物以及植物体内的蛋白质与有机酸等对纳米金属颗粒在植物中的生物转化起到重要作用;④纳米金属颗粒可以通过引起氧化应激或抑制营养元素吸收对植物产生毒性效应. 为此,提出未来研究展望:建议重点关注纳米金属颗粒在土壤中形态转变过程的耦合效应,以及各赋存形态在植物体内的运输途径、生物转化过程机制及其对植物生物效应的贡献等.      

人工纳米颗粒在水体中的行为及其对浮游植物的影响

人工纳米颗粒(engineered nanoparticles,ENPs)因其特殊的尺寸效应及良好的光学、磁学等性质,已被广泛应用于医药、生物成像以及工业产品等领域.在生产、使用和排放的过程中,ENPs通过不同途径不可避免地进入水体,因此ENPs在水体中的行为和生物安全性也引起了人们的极大关注.在水生生态系统中,浮游植物作为初级生产者,为自身以及其他营养级生物提供营养物质、能量和氧气,因此受到ENPs的影响是难以估算的.近年来已有大量的研究证实ENPs对生物有毒性效应,但ENPs进入浮游植物体内的机制以及ENPs在浮游植物体内的生物运输和转化的报道较少,并且这方面的机制仍不甚明确.本文重点介绍了纳米材料进入水体的途径,在水体中的行为以及对浮游植物的生物效应的最新研究进展,但这方面的机制研究需要进一步深入.     

不同磷水平下丛枝菌根真菌对纳米氧化锌生物效应的影响

纳米ZnO颗粒是应用最为广泛金属型纳米颗粒(nanoparticles,NPs)之一,对作物和土壤微生物的影响值得关注.丛枝菌根(arbuscular mycorrhizal,AM)是自然界中普遍存在的植物-真菌共生体,对各种环境胁迫具有一定的抵御能力,但菌根效应受土壤和植物磷含量的影响.分别设置0、20、50、100 mg·kg~(-1)这4个磷水平,在接种或不接种AM真菌Funneliformis mosseae、添加或不添加纳米ZnO(500 mg·kg~(-1))条件下在温室中利用玉米进行土壤盆栽试验.结果表明,纳米ZnO没有显著影响玉米生长,但不利于菌根侵染和磷素吸收,并引起锌在植物体内的积累.纳米ZnO和高磷降低玉米菌根侵染,但AM真菌在所有磷水平下均显著促进植物生长.施磷和接菌均可使土壤p H升高、降低纳米ZnO源锌的生物有效性,从而降低锌向玉米地上部分的转运和积累,体现出一定保护作用.接菌在多数情况下显示出积极的菌根效应,尤其在低磷、添加纳米ZnO条件下更为显著.结果首次表明,AM真菌、磷肥均有助于减轻纳米ZnO引起的土壤污染及其所产生的生态和健康风险.     

人工纳米颗粒对水生生物的毒性效应及其机制研究进展

随着纳米科技的飞速发展和纳米产品的普及,人工纳米颗粒(NPs)的生物毒性效应研究逐渐成为国内外关注的热点.以水环境和水生生物为对象,综述了近几年来NPs对水生生物的毒性效应、毒性机制等方面的研究进展.文中按NPs的分类总结了NPs对微生物、藻类、原生动物和鱼类等水生生物的毒性效应,着重论述了NPs的可能毒性机制及其与NPs的独特物理化学性质之间的关系,并在细胞和分子水平上探讨了NPs的摄取、跨膜运输等方面的可能机制.在自然水体中,NPs因其化学行为受水化学条件等影响而表现出不同于实验室研究中的生物毒性效应,本文也对这方面的研究进行了讨论和总结.最后分析了目前水生生物纳米毒性研究中的瓶颈和方法、技术方面的问题,并对以后应注重开展的研究进行了展望.     

生物炭添加对湿地植物生长及氧化应激响应的影响

在传统潜流人工湿地中,因氧气扩散过低,导致DO长期处于较低水平.当湿地植物长期处于缺氧甚至厌氧环境时,可造成膜脂质过氧化及蛋白质和DNA损伤.由于生物炭投加至人工湿地利于空气扩散进入湿地床体,改善湿地内部环境,为此,本试验在温室内构建5组潜流人工湿地,研究生物炭对湿地植物菖蒲(Acorus calamus L.,AC)的影响特征和机制.结果表明,生物炭能够显著增加湿地中AC体内光合色素含量,光合作用被激励,利于植物体内可溶性蛋白(SP)的积累和植物生物量的增加,同时生物炭能加强谷氨酰胺合酶(GS)的活力,增强植物体内氨氮(NH_4~+-N)的代谢,进而增强AC的比吸收速率,利于AC吸收去除NH_4~+-N.AC是一类对缺氧条件具有显著抵抗能力的湿地植物,但湿地长期缺氧或厌氧能对AC体内造成膜脂被氧化的不良影响,但生物炭添加能够缓解AC体内超氧化物和过氧化物的积累,显著降低AC体内丙二醛(MDA)的含量.     

纳米颗粒污染土壤的健康评价研究进展

纳米颗粒(nanoparticles,NPs)由于其独特的理化性质在农业上已经被广泛用作纳米肥料以及杀虫剂,部分纳米颗粒也不可避免地进入了土壤环境,对土壤造成污染,其在地球各圈层中循环并进入植物及动物体内,最终可能富集于人体并造成危害.根据文献调研,目前国内外的相关研究大多聚焦于纳米颗粒的生物毒性和环境行为方面,其对土壤性质影响的研究尚不完善,现有的土壤健康评价体系也极少考虑纳米颗粒对土壤环境的破坏.而纳米颗粒会影响土壤力学性能以及pH、氧化还原电位、阳离子交换量等化学性质,并对土壤动物及微生物种群结构及代谢组学特性造成较大影响;同时,纳米颗粒也会通过环境地球化学循环在土壤中迁移、转化和积累,故有必要深入探究其对土壤的污染与生态环境的破坏机理.基于目前的土壤评价体系,未来需针对纳米颗粒产生的污染及风险进行系统性评估,选取不依赖于NPs种类的普适性土壤性质指标,并重点将土壤无脊椎动物生理指标及土壤原生动物性质等生物指标纳入评价体系中;此外,也仍需对纳米颗粒造成的长期污染与空间迁移进行探究,同步借助相关仪器对土壤中纳米颗粒的浓度及种类进行评估,并结合机器学习、模型模拟与地理技术完善评估结果...     

丛枝菌根影响纳米ZnO对玉米的生物效应

人工纳米颗粒(engineered nanoparticles,ENPs)能被植物吸收、积累,随食物链进入人体而引起健康风险.丛枝菌根(arbuscular mycorrhizal,AM)真菌可与陆地生态系统中绝大多数高等植物互惠共生,可能影响ENPs的生物效应.在温室土壤盆栽条件下研究了施加不同水平纳米ZnO(0、500、1000、2000、3000 mg·kg-1)和接种AM真菌Acaulospora mellea对玉米生长和营养状况的影响.结果表明,随土壤中纳米ZnO施加水平的增加,菌根侵染率和玉米生物量均呈降低趋势,根系总长、总表面积及总体积降低,植株体内Zn含量和吸收量逐渐增加,地上部分P、N、K、Fe、Cu吸收量逐渐降低.与对照相比,接种AM真菌均促进玉米的生长,改善P、N、K营养,根系总长、总表面积及总体积增加,并在施加纳米ZnO时增加Zn在玉米根系中的分配比例.本结果首次表明,土壤中纳米ZnO对丛枝菌根具有一定毒性,而接种AM真菌能够减轻其毒性,对宿主植物起到保护作用.     

纳米氧化锌、硫酸锌和AM真菌对玉米生长的影响

纳米氧化锌(Zn O)是应用最为广泛但具有一定生物毒性的金属型纳米颗粒(nanoparticles,NPs)之一,而丛枝菌根(arbuscular mycorrhizal,AM)真菌能改善宿主植物矿质营养和增强宿主植物抗逆性,但纳米Zn O和其他锌污染物之间的关系以及AM真菌对其生物效应的影响目前尚不清楚.通过温室盆栽试验,研究了单一或复合施加纳米Zn O、ZnSO_4(500mg·kg~(-1))时接种AM真菌Funneliformis mosseae BEG 167对玉米生长的影响.结果表明,纳米Zn O对AM真菌侵染和玉米植株生长有一定抑制作用,表现出植物毒性,且与同浓度(500 mg·kg~(-1))下的ZnSO_4作用类似.与非菌根对照相比,接种AM真菌降低了玉米植株的Zn含量或Zn吸收量,且在复合处理中对玉米生长表现出较好的促生作用.结果首次表明,纳米ZnO与ZnSO_4在生物毒性上存在复杂的交互作用,而接种AM真菌在二者复合污染时对玉米具有一定的保护作用.     

水杨酸在植物缓解重金属镉胁迫中的作用

重金属污染是全球都面临的重大环境问题。重金属镉(Cd)是威胁有机体最大的重金属之一,它不仅影响植物正常的生长发育过程,还会通过植物的吸收与累积威胁人类及动物的生命健康。因此,缓解重金属Cd对植物的毒害是植物及环境污染研究领域的一项重要课题。水杨酸(SA)是植物体内普遍存在的一种小分子酚类物质。当植物受到生物或非生物胁迫时,SA可以作为一种信号分子参与植物特异性反应的表达过程,提高植物的抵抗能力。SA对植物Cd胁迫的缓解作用已得以广泛研究,文章就内源SA、外源SA对Cd毒性的缓解作用,内在缓解机理方面的研究进展进行综述,并提出了该领域研究出现的问题及未来的研究方向。     

金属半导体纳米粒子对水培水稻幼苗的毒性及吸收转运规律

金属半导体纳米粒子由于其独特的理化性质被广泛应用于工业生产和科学研究,而遗留在水环境中的金属半导体纳米粒子对植物的危害程度和累积水平还有待研究和完善.本文以水稻为实验对象,通过水培试验研究了氧化铜纳米粒子(CuONPs)、氧化锌纳米粒子(ZnONPs)和硫化锌纳米粒子(ZnSNPs)在不同浓度(10、50和100 mg·L~(-1))下的植物毒性及其在水稻体内的吸收转运行为.纳米粒子悬浮液的粒径分布和Zeta电位分析结果表明,CuONPs在水中的分散性和稳定性高于ZnONPs和ZnSNPs.ZnONPs悬浮液中溶解的金属离子量高于CuONPs和ZnSNPs悬浮液.毒性实验结果表明,较高浓度(50和100 mg·L~(-1))的ZnONPs和CuONPs不同程度地阻碍了水稻幼苗的生长,增加了根系中丙二醛(MDA)的含量,降低了根系活力和叶片中的叶绿素含量.50和100 mg·L~(-1)的ZnONPs导致根系鲜重分别降低至对照组的47.3%和44.3%,100 mg·L~(-1)ZnONPs和CuONPs使根系活力由对照组的710.4μg·g-1·h~(-1)分别降低至150.0和481.9μg·g-1·h~(-1).ZnSNPs在实验设置浓度下体现了促进水稻生长的作用.10 mg·L~(-1)的ZnSNPs使地上部分鲜重增加到对照组的109.8%,100 mg·L~(-1)时使根系活力提高到了对照组的2倍.Zn的选择性吸收和生物转运系数均高于Cu,本研究结果证明了金属半导体纳米粒子的植物毒性和累积水平与纳米粒子在水中的理化性质及植物对不同毒物的反应程度有关.     

Phytoremediation of engineered nanoparticles using aquatic plants: Mechanisms and practical feasibility

Certain plants have demonstrated the capability to take up and accumulate metals, thus offering the potential to remediate metal-contaminated water and sediment. Several aquatic species have further been identified which can take up metal and metal oxide engineered nanoparticles (ENPs). It is important to evaluate if aquatic plants exhibiting potential for metal phytoremediation can be applied to remediation of metallic ENPs. Understanding the interactions between ENPs and aquatic plants, and evaluating possible influences on metal uptake and phytoremediation processes is therefore essential. This review article will address the feasibility of green plants for treatment of ENP-affected aquatic ecosystems. Discussion will include common types of ENPs in current use; transformations of ENPs in aquatic systems; the importance of microorganisms in supporting plant growth; ENP entry into the plant; the influence of microorganisms in promoting plant uptake; and recent findings in phytoremediation of ENP-affected water, including applications to constructed wetlands.     

外来植物入侵力主要理论与展望

外来植物入侵是全球性环境问题.我国植物入侵态势严峻,随着全球化的提速,这一威胁将加剧.总结外来种入侵力的主要理论,分析其生态学机制、常见的理解误区,剖析入侵力的主要表现形式和产生的机制,可为进一步明确未来研究方向,提高预测、预警、预防和治理工作效率提供参考.通过总结分析发现:理论间存在部分包含、支持、相悖等逻辑关系,并且生态位在外来种和土著种之间的差异应该只是外来种定殖的一个有利条件.新的认知是,适合度优势才是入侵种竞争排斥土著种的必须条件,因而是入侵植物获得成功的重要原因.适合度优势表现为快速生长等一些有利于竞争、扩散的性状稳定遗传.适合度优势产生于生理、生化、解剖、形态等方面的优势,而这些优势来自选择压力变化后外来种的进化或基因型的保留.这些研究进展说明,外来植物入侵力产生的机制是多样化的.因此,除去发现其他入侵力机制进而丰富完善入侵力理论体系外,利用数据综合分析等手段,总结我国外来植物入侵力组成的主要性状,从而为构建外来植物入侵风险评价体系提供直接依据,指导海关等相关部门的检查检疫工作,是降低我国入侵植物威胁的有效方法之一.     

Iron toxicity resistance strategies in tropical grasses: The role of apoplastic radicular barriers

The revegetation of mined areas poses a great challenge to the iron ore mining industry. The initial recovery process in degraded areas might rely on the use of Fe-resistant grasses. Tropical grasses, such as Paspalum densum and Echinochloa crus-galli, show different resistance strategies to iron toxicity; however, these mechanisms are poorly understood. The Fe-resistance mechanisms and direct iron toxicity as a function of root apex removal were investigated. To achieve this purpose, both grass species were grown for up to 480?hr in a nutrient solution containing 0.019 or 7?mmol/L Fe-EDTA after the root apices had been removed or maintained. Cultivation in the presence of excess iron-induced leaf bronzing and the formation of iron plaque on the root surfaces of both grass species, but was more significant on those plants whose root apex had been removed. Iron accumulation was higher in the roots, but reached phytotoxic levels in the aerial parts as well. It did not hinder the biosynthesis of chloroplastidic pigments. No significant changes in gas exchange and chlorophyll a fluorescence occurred in either grass when their roots were kept intact; the contrary was true for plants with excised root apices. In both studied grasses, the root apoplastic barriers had an important function in the restriction of iron translocation from the root to the aerial plant parts, especially in E. crus-galli. Root apex removal negatively influenced the iron toxicity resistance mechanisms (tolerance in P. densum and avoidance in E. crus-galli).     

Effects of TiO2 nanoparticles on the aquatic plant Spirodela polyrrhiza: Evaluation of growth parameters, pigment contents and antioxidant enzyme activities

Plants are essential components of all ecosystems and play a critical role in environmental fate of nanoparticles. However, the toxicological impacts of nanoparticles on plants are not well documented. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs) are produced worldwide in large quantities for a wide range of purposes. In the present study, the uptake of TiO₂-NPs by the aquatic plant Spirodela polyrrhiza and the consequent effects on the plant were evaluated. Initially, structural and morphological characteristics of the used TiO₂-NPs were determined using XRD, SEM, TEM and BET techniques. As a result, an anatase structure with the average crystalline size of 8nm was confirmed for the synthesized TiO₂-NPs. Subsequently, entrance of TiO₂-NP_S to plant roots was verified by fluorescence microscopic images. Activity of a number of antioxidant enzymes, as well as, changes in growth parameters and photosynthetic pigment contents as physiological indices were assessed to investigate the effects of TiO₂-NPs on S. polyrrhiza. The increasing concentration of TiO₂-NPs led to the significant decrease in all of the growth parameters and changes in antioxidant enzyme activities. The activity of superoxide dismutase enhanced significantly by the increasing concentration of TiO₂-NPs. Enhancement of superoxide dismutase activity could be explained as promoting antioxidant system to scavenging the reactive oxygen species. In contrast, the activity of peroxidase was notably decreased in the treated plants. Reduced peroxidase activity could be attributed to either direct effect of these particles on the molecular structure of the enzyme or plant defense system damage due to reactive oxygen species.     

云南菊科入侵物种与本地共生物种光合特性比较

为了探求菊科入侵植物的入侵机制,了解菊科入侵植物与非入侵植物光合特性的差异,以云南省包括薇甘菊(Mikania micrantha)、紫茎泽兰(Ageratina adenophora)、飞机草(Chromolaena odorata)、三叶鬼针草(Bidens pilosa)在内的4种菊科入侵物种为研究对象,并以与其共生的菊科外来非入侵物种熊耳草(Ageratum houstonianum)为对照,研究外来入侵物种与非入侵物种叶片特性及气体交换参数等方面的区别. 结果表明:薇甘菊、紫茎泽兰、飞机草和三叶鬼针草的P_nmax(maximum net photosynthetic rate, 最大净光合速率)分别为15.92、18.69、17.15和22.78 μmol/(m2·s),分别比其共生非入侵物种熊耳草的高出21.63%、42.77%、31.02%和73.99%;4种入侵物种的LSP(light saturation point, 光饱和点)和LCP(light compensation point, 光补偿点)也显著高于熊耳草,但其AQY(apparent quantum yield, 表观量子效率)却显著低于该共生种. 4种入侵物种叶片的N_mass(leaf N content per unit mass, 单位质量N含量)和CC_mass(leaf construction cost per unit mass, 单位质量建成成本)均显著高于熊耳草,除飞机草外,其他3种入侵物种的PEUE(photosynthetic energy use efficiency, 光合能量利用效率)和PNUE(photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency, 光合氮利用效率)均显著高于熊耳草,而飞机草和熊耳草之间差异并不显著. 5种植物叶片N_mass分别与叶片SLA(specific leaf area,比叶面积)、CC_mass呈极显著正相关,与植物P_nmax、叶片P_mass(leaf N content per unit mass, 单位质量P含量)和PEUE呈显著正相关,植物P_nmax与PNUE、PEUE呈极显著正相关,与叶片SLA呈显著正相关. 研究显示,与菊科共生外来非入侵植物相比,较高的光合特性参数、叶片特性指标和能量利用效率指标可能是外来菊科入侵物种成功入侵的原因之一.      

Low abundance of long-tongued pollinators leads to pollen limitation in four specialized hawkmoth-pollinated plants in the Atlantic Rain forest,Brazil

Long-tubed hawkmoth-pollinated species present some of the most remarkable examples of floral specialization depending exclusively on long-tongued hawkmoths for sexual reproduction. Nonetheless, long-tongued hawkmoths do not rely exclusively on specialized plants as nectar sources, which may limit sexual reproduction through pollen limitation. However, very few studies have quantified the level of pollen limitation in plants with highly specialized floral traits in tropical regions. In this context, we studied four sympatric hawkmoth-pollinated species in a highland Atlantic Rain forest and assessed pollen limitation and their dependence on pollinators by analyzing the floral biology, breeding system, pollination mechanisms, and abundance of long-tongued pollinators. We showed that the four species are self-compatible, but are completely dependent on long-tongued hawkmoths to set fruits, and that flower visitation was infrequent in all plant species. Pollen limitation indices ranged from 0.53 to 0.96 showing that fruit set is highly limited by pollen receipt. Long-tongued moths are much less abundant and comprise only one sixth of the hawkmoth fauna. Pollen analyses of 578 sampled moths revealed that hawkmoths visited ca. 80 plant species in the community, but only two of the four species studied. Visited plants included a long-tubed hawkmoth-pollinated species endemic to the lowland forest ca. 15–20 km away from the study site. Specialization index (H ₂ ′?=?0.20) showed that community-level interactions between hawkmoths and plants are generalized. We suggest that sexual reproduction of these highly specialized hawkmoth-pollinated species is impaired by competition among plants for pollinators, in conjunction with the low abundance and diversity of long-tongued pollinators.     

Neanderthal medics? Evidence for food, cooking, and medicinal plants entrapped in dental calculus

Neanderthals disappeared sometime between 30,000 and 24,000?years ago. Until recently, Neanderthals were understood to have been predominantly meat-eaters; however, a growing body of evidence suggests their diet also included plants. We present the results of a study, in which sequential thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TD-GC-MS) and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) were combined with morphological analysis of plant microfossils, to identify material entrapped in dental calculus from five Neanderthal individuals from the north Spanish site of El Sidrón. Our results provide the first molecular evidence for inhalation of wood-fire smoke and bitumen or oil shale and ingestion of a range of cooked plant foods. We also offer the first evidence for the use of medicinal plants by a Neanderthal individual. The varied use of plants that we have identified suggests that the Neanderthal occupants of El Sidrón had a sophisticated knowledge of their natural surroundings which included the ability to select and use certain plants.     

Meta-networks for the study of biogeographical traits in ecological networks: the Mexican hummingbird-plant assemblage

Recent studies on ecological networks have quantified the contribution of ecological, historical, and evolutionary factors on the structure of local communities of interacting species. However, the influence of species’ biogeographical traits, such as migratory habits or phylogeographical history, on ecological networks is poorly understood. Meta-networks, i.e., networks that cover large spatial extensions and include species not co-occurring locally, enable us to investigate mechanisms that operate at larger spatial scales such as migratory patterns or phylogeographical distributions, as well as indirect relationships among species through shared partners. Using a meta-network of hummingbird-plant interaction across Mexico, we illustrate the usefulness of this approach by investigating (1) how biogeographical and morphological factors associate with observed interactions and (2) how species-specific biogeographical characteristics associate with species’ network roles. Our results show that all studied hummingbird and plant species in the meta-network were interrelated, either directly or through shared partners. The meta-network was structured into modules, resulting from hummingbirds and plants interacting preferentially with subsets of species, which differed in biogeographical, and, to a lesser extent, morphological traits. Furthermore, migrants and hummingbirds from Nearctic, Transition, and widespread regions had a higher topological importance in the meta-network. Our study illustrates how meta-networks may contribute to our current knowledge on species’ biogeographical traits and biotic interactions, providing a perspective complementary to local-scale networks.     

Pollination syndromes ignored: importance of non-ornithophilous flowers to Neotropical savanna hummingbirds

Generalization prevails in flower–animal interactions, and although animal visitors are not equally effective pollinators, most interactions likely represent an important energy intake for the animal visitor. Hummingbirds are nectar-feeding specialists, and many tropical plants are specialized toward hummingbird-pollination. In spite of this, especially in dry and seasonal tropical habitats, hummingbirds may often rely on non-ornithophilous plants to meet their energy requirements. However, quantitative studies evaluating the relative importance of ornithophilous vs. non-ornithophilous plants for hummingbirds in these areas are scarce. We here studied the availability and use of floral resources by hummingbirds in two different areas of the Cerrado, the seasonal savannas in Central Brazil. Roughly half the hummingbird visited plant species were non-ornithophilous, and these contributed greatly to increase the overall nectar availability. We showed that mean nectar offer, at the transect scale, was the only parameter related to hummingbird visitation frequency, more so than nectar offer at single flowers and at the plant scale, or pollination syndrome. Centrality indices, calculated using hummingbird–plant networks, showed that ornithophilous and non-ornithophilous plants have similar importance for network cohesion. How this foraging behaviour affects reproduction of non-ornithophilous plants remains largely unexplored and is probably case specific, however, we suggest that the additional energy provided by non-ornithophilous plants may facilitate reproduction of truly ornithophilous flowers by attracting and maintaining hummingbirds in the area. This may promote asymmetric hummingbird–plant associations, i.e., pollination depends on floral traits adapted to hummingbird morphology, but hummingbird visitation is determined more by the energetic "reward" than by pollination syndromes.     

Predominance of self-compatibility in hummingbird-pollinated plants in the Neotropics

Both plant traits and plant–pollinator interactions are thought to influence plant mating systems. For hummingbird-pollinated plants, foraging strategy (territorial or traplining) is also expected to influence plant mating. We hypothesize that the traplining behavior of hermits promotes outcrossing, whereas the behavior of non-hermits favours self-incompatibility. Thus, selection is expected to maintain self-incompatibility in plants pollinated by non-hermits. We explore the incidence of self-incompatibility in Neotropical hummingbird-pollinated plants and its association with hummingbird behavior and plant traits. We conducted a literature review (56 species) and performed hand-pollination experiments in 27 hummingbird-pollinated plants in an Atlantic rainforest. We found that self-incompatibility (measured as <0.3 for the Index of Self-incompatibility [ISI]) occurred in only 33 % of the Neotropical hummingbird-pollinated plants. The interaction of hummingbird and habit type affected ISI, as did phylogenetic relationships. Specifically, herbs pollinated by non-hermits had higher ISI than woody plants pollinated by non-hermits, and herbs pollinated by both hermits and non-hermits. For the Atlantic rainforest plant guild, 30 % of the species were self-incompatible. ISI was higher in herbs than in woody species and increased with plant aggregation but was not dependent on foraging behavior, plant density, or floral display. Although hummingbirds differ in their foraging strategies, these behavioral differences seem to have only a minor influence on the incidence of self-incompatibility. Phylogenetic relatedness seems to be the strongest determinant of mating system in Neotropical hummingbird-pollinated plants.