应用物种敏感性分布评估多环芳烃对淡水生物的生态风险（Assessing Ecological Risks of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons（PAHs）to Freshwater Organisms by Species Sensitivity Distributions）

阐述了利用物种敏感性分布进行生态风险评价的原理与方法,构建了淡水生物对8种常见多环芳烃(蒽、芘、苯并[a]芘、荧蒽、菲、芴、苊、萘)的物种敏感性分布;在此基础上,计算了这8种多环芳烃对不同类别生物的HC5(Hazardous Concentration for5%of the species)阈值,预测了不同浓度多环芳烃对生物的潜在影响比例PAF(Potentialaffected fraction),比较了不同类别生物对多环芳烃的敏感性,以及多环芳烃对淡水生物的生态风险,并对以红枫湖、黄河、白洋淀为代表的中国典型水体中的多环芳烃进行了联合生态风险评价.结果表明:1)当污染物浓度达到10μg·L-1时,半数多环芳烃的风险超过了5%的阈值;当浓度上升到100μg·L-1时,只有萘和苊没有显著生态风险.2)对于芴和荧蒽,无脊椎动物更为敏感;而对于萘,则脊椎动物更敏感.3)通过HC5值比较和SSD曲线图比较,可得出污染物对所有物种的生态风险大小依次为:蒽>芘>苯并[a]芘>荧蒽>菲>芴>苊>萘;对脊椎动物风险大小为:荧蒽>苊>萘;对无脊椎动物:蒽>芘>荧蒽>菲>芴>苊>萘.4)多环芳烃在红枫湖、黄河、小白洋淀的生态风险均较低,急性联合msPAF(multisubstance PAF)值小于1%.     

太湖梅梁湾沉积物中多环芳烃的生态和健康风险

持久性有机物引起的水质安全性问题日益受到广泛的关注.利用生态和健康风险评价的原理和方法,对太湖梅梁湾水源地沉积物中的多环芳烃可能导致的负面效应进行了分析.首先采用商值法筛选出该地区沉积物中具有潜在风险的多环芳烃,再进一步用建立在暴露浓度分布和物种敏感度分布上的概率法定量表征风险.结果表明,太湖梅梁湾水源地沉积物的多环芳烃中,菲、荧蒽、芘、苯并[a]蒽、屈、苯并[a]芘、二苯并[a,h]蒽7种具有潜在风险;在保护95%的物种水平下,菲的风险最小,而荧蒽和芘风险较高,达20%.健康风险分析表明,美国EPA提出的7种具有遗传毒性的多环芳烃其致癌风险在梅梁湾沉积物中均在10-5水平以下.     

新疆准东煤矿开采区域中多环芳烃的污染特征分析

本文采集并分析了新疆准东煤矿开采区域6个采样点的降尘、土壤和植物的样品,对样品中16种多环芳烃(PAHs)的含量进行了分析,结果显示,降尘中∑PAHs在1.07—8.34 mg·kg~(-1)间;土壤中(除1#点位)∑PAHs在0.134—1.06 mg·kg~(-1)间;植物中(除1#点位)∑PAHs在0.163—1.54 mg·kg~(-1)间.降尘中高含量PAHs主要为苯并[b]荧蒽、菲和萘;土壤中高含量PAHs主要为菲、荧蒽和蒽;植物中高含量PAHs主要为萘、菲和芴.降尘、土壤及植物中PAHs均显示出富三环的特征;研究区域土壤中PAHs的苯并(a)芘等效毒性当量结果显示,研究区域土壤中PAHs的污染存在一定的潜在风险.     

薪柴燃烧源和燃煤源中多环芳烃的成分谱研究

采集了薪柴燃烧源、燃煤源产生的PM10颗粒物样品,采用超声萃取、硅胶-氧化铝柱层析分离、气相色谱/质谱联用技术,对美国环保总局推荐的优控多环芳烃进行了定量分析。薪柴源、燃煤源产生的多环芳烃单体质量浓度分别在0.81～199.52、9.86～591.95ng/m3之间;对结果进行归一化处理,从而确定了薪柴源、燃煤源产生的多环芳烃成分谱。对比两种污染源发现,薪柴源产生的多环芳烃以荧蒽和芘为主,燃煤源以荧蒽、苯并苝的含量最高。薪柴源产生的多环芳烃中,4环芳烃含量非常高,归一化含量达到60%,其他环数芳烃的含量很低;燃煤源中,3、4环芳烃含量较高,5、6环芳烃次之,它们之间的差别不如薪柴源各环芳烃之间的差别大。     

长春城郊蔬菜地土壤中多环芳烃的含量与分布特征

以长春城市郊区菜地土壤为研究对象,采用GC-FID法对该地区土壤中多环芳烃含量进行分析测定,长春城郊菜地土壤中平均含量苯并(a)芘蒽菲萘.该地区土壤中萘,蒽的含量处于尚清洁水平;部分区域土壤中苯并(a)芘和菲的含量处于轻度污染水平.     

北京地区表层土壤中多环芳烃的分布特征及污染源分析

根据北京地区不同环境功能区62个样品的分析结果,讨论了研究区表层土壤中多环芳烃的分布特征及污染源类型。结果表明：（1）研究区表层土壤中检测到的多环芳烃主要包括萘、苊、菲、惹烯、三芴、荧蒽、芘、、苯并蒽、苯并[b]荧蒽、苯并[k]荧蒽、苯并[e]芘、苯并[a]芘、苝、二苯并[a,h]蒽、茚并[1,2,3–cd]芘、苯并[g,h,i]苝及其同系物;（2）不同环境功能区表层土壤中多环芳烃的组成及质量分数均存在一定的差别,16种优先控制的多环芳烃质量分数为175.1~10 344 ng.g-1,其中城市中心区表层土壤中多环芳烃的质量分数最高,交通干线附近、工矿企业附近表层土壤中PAHs的质量分数较高,林地、果园和农田表层土壤中PAHs的质量分数较低;（3）表层土壤中PAHs既有来源于石油源,也有来源于化石燃料燃烧产物的,但不同功能区二者贡献存在差别,其中农业用地（林地、果园、农田）中PAHs主要来源于石油源（或部分来源于土壤母岩中的有机质）,城区、交通干线附近及工矿企业附近表层土壤中PAHs污染源以化石燃料燃烧产物输入为主。     

大气颗粒物中硝基多环芳烃的气相色谱-化学电离负离子-质谱联用法分析

比较了硝基多环芳烃(nitm-PAHs)的Gc-EI/Ms,GC-NCI/MS和HPLC-FLD分析方法,结果表明,GC-NCL/MS法选择性和灵敏度较高,样品前处理简单,满足大气颗粒物中痕量Nitm-PAHs的分析要求.用GC-NCI/MS法分析了厦门市钟鼓山隧道、厦门大学海洋楼和环岛干线大气颗粒物PM10中6种nitro-PAHs,包括9-硝基蒽(9-NAN)、2-硝基荧蒽+3-硝基荧蒽(2+3-NF)、1-硝基芘(1-NP)、7-硝基苯并[a]蒽(7-NBaA)和6-硝基苯并[a]芘(6-NBaP).结果显示,隧道样品中nitro-PAHs的浓度最高,6种nitro-PAHs的日均总浓度在1210.0-1931.0 pg·m-3之间,其次为海洋楼顶和环岛干线,分别处于100.6-900.4 pg·m-3和96.5-332.1 pg·m-3范围内.隧道样品中1-硝基芘(1-NP)含量占绝对优势((60.9±7.0)%),显示汽车尾气直接排放的特征;而海洋楼顶和环岛干线站点的样品以2+3-硝基荧蒽(2+3-NF)为主,分别占到nitro-PAHs总浓度的(54.9±6.7)%和(66.4±5.0)%,说明受气相反应生成的影响明显.海洋楼顶PM10中nitro-PAHs的浓度显示明显的昼夜变化规律,夜间mtro-PAHs浓度及2+3-NF/1-NP比值均明显高于白天,说明大气颗粒物中的nitrn-PAHs受光降解的影响明显,夜间nitro-PAHs主要由PAHs与NO3·自由基的反应生成.     

呼和浩特市冬季PM_(10)中多环芳烃的污染特征及来源解析

2013年12月在呼和浩特市主城区9个环境空气监测点位同步采集PM_(10)样品,对PM_(10)浓度和16种多环芳烃的浓度、污染特征进行了分析,使用特征比值和主成分分析对多环芳烃来源进行了解析.9个监测点位的PM_(10)浓度介于23.5—322μg·m-3之间,16种多环芳烃总量介于5.34—850 ng·m-3之间.荧蒽、芘、苯并[a]蒽、、苯并[b]荧蒽、苯并[a]芘、苯并[g,h,i]苝和茚并[1,2,3-cd]芘等多环芳烃单体浓度较高,这8种多环芳烃占多环芳烃总浓度的80.4%.主成分分析所获得污染源结果和特征比值法定性判断出的污染源结果一致,燃烧源、机动车尾气源和石油源为主要污染源,分别贡献61.3%、16.0%和10.4%.     

淮河流域安徽段水系沉积物中多环芳烃的污染性状研究

应用气相色谱质谱联用仪测定淮河流域安徽段水系沉积物样品中萘、二氢苊、苊、芴、菲、蒽、荧蒽、芘、苯并[a]蒽、、苯并[a]芘和二苯并[a,h]蒽等12种多环芳烃的质量分数,并在此基础上分析沉积物中多环芳烃的区域分布、污染特征和来源。结果表明：研究区水系沉积物中多环芳烃有一定程度的富集,但与国内其他河流相比,样品中多环芳烃的质量分数不高;淮河南北岸支流沉积物中多环芳烃的含量差异比较明显,尤其是东淝河,含量明显低于淮北平原上的其它河流;淮河主干道和北岸支流沉积物中4环以上的多环芳烃含量较高,而南岸支流的淠河和东淝河沉积物中2～3环的多环芳烃平均含量明显高于其他环数;通过污染来源分析,沉积物中多环芳烃除与天然成岩过程有关外,大都是由有机物质的燃烧与热解引起的。     

青岛地区大气气溶胶中多环芳烃的GC/MS分析

本文采集了青岛5个区的大气气溶胶样品，参照美国EPA610方法，用GC/MS分析鉴定多环芳烃。结果表明，青岛市大气气溶胶中PAHs总量的总趋势是东部高于西部，中部高于南、北部。多环芳烃的环数分布表明，气溶胶中PAHs几乎全部由人类活动产生。16种优先控制多环芳烃化合物中的萘、苊、芴、荧蕙、茚并[1，2，3-cd]芘，苯并[b]荧蒽、苯并[k]荧蒽等有毒有害有机污染物普遍检出于市内五区。苯并[a]芘的大气含量甚微。     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.