Filter-feeding ethology of benthic invertebrates (ascidians). IV. Pumping rate,filtration rate,filtration efficiency

A combination of a direct and an indirect method has been used for the first time in the study of filter-feeding in benthic invertebrates. Experiments over 12 h periods under constant temperature, pH, light and feeding conditions have been carried out with 3 species of ascidians: Ciona intestinalis (Linné, 1767); Phallusia mammillata (Cuvier, 1815) and Styela plicata (Lesueur, 1823). In C. intestinalis and P. mammillata, no pumping rhythm has been found; the water flow was constant for 12 h, except for some brief accidental interruptions. In S. plicata, the particular rhythm of spontaneous periodical contractions recorded during the experiment were related to gamete emission. The speed of water flow, which was fairly constant during recording, varied considerably during the 12 h period; these variations were generally related to modifications in the diameter of the cloacal siphon. The average speeds, in cm sec^-1, lay between 5.7 and 9.5 for C. intestinalis, 5.2 and 19.4 for P. mammillata, and between 5.3 and 10.7 for S. plicata. Variations in the pumping-rate were small, oscillating around a mean value. In ml h^-1 g^-1 dry weight of organs these were 5,829 to 5,982 (mean=5,906) for C. intestinalis, 6,142 to 6,592 (mean=6,312) for P. mammillata, 1,0508 to 1,1505 (mean=1,0708) for S. plicata. Filtration was continuous without any particular rhythm; filtration rates in ml h^-1 g^-1 dry weight of organs varied between 4,244 and 4,418 (mean=4,331) for C. intestinalis, 4,620 and 4,960 (mean=4,779) for P. mammillata, 8,482 and 9,078 (mean=8,760) for S. plicata. The curves representing pumping and filtration were clearly parallel, indicating that filtration efficiency did not vary greatly during the course of an experiment; the rates obtained were 65 to 87% (mean=74%) for C. intestinalis, 66 to 88% (mean 76%) for P. mammillata, and 73 to 90% (mean=80%) for S. plicata. The slightly higher mean value in S. plicata is probably related to the higher complexity of the branchial apparatus of this species.     

Morphological, physiological and reproductive conditions of rafting bull kelp (Durvillaea antarctica) in northern-central Chile (30°S)

The bull kelp Durvillaea antarctica is a common floating alga in the southern hemisphere, but despite the ecological and biogeographic importance of kelp rafts, little is known about the responses of detached kelps to the conditions at the sea surface. The morphological, physiological and reproductive performances of D. antarctica rafts in the Coastal System of Coquimbo, Chile (CSC, ~30°S), were examined during winter and summer of two successive years (2010/11 and 2011/12). Epibionts (Lepas spp.) that only attach to floating objects were used as indicator for the floating time of kelp rafts. Photosynthetic efficiency and reproductive maturity of both benthic and floating algae varied seasonally, with a stronger decrease in summer than in winter. Blade size (measured as weight proportion of kelp individuals), phlorotannin concentrations and antioxidant activities were lower in floating than in benthic algae. Environmental conditions and floating time affected the blade tissues, with stronger negative effects during summer. These results confirm that floating persistence of D. antarctica in the CSC is suppressed during the summer months, which indicates that the dispersal potential of this (and other) floating algae varies seasonally.     

Corallina and Ellisolandia (Corallinales,Rhodophyta) photophysiology over daylight tidal emersion: interactions with irradiance,temperature and carbonate chemistry

The photophysiology of three geniculate coralline algal species (Corallina officinalis, C. caespitosa and Ellisolandia elongata) was determined in intertidal rock pools in the south-west UK at Combe Martin (51°12′31N 4°2′19W) and Heybrook Bay (50°31′66N 4°11′41W), at the start, middle and end of summer (September 1 and 2) and winter (February 9 and 10) daylight tidal emersion periods, in relation to prevailing irradiance, temperature and carbonate chemistry conditions. Algal photophysiology was assessed from rapid light curves performed using pulse amplitude modulation fluorometry. Corallina and Ellisolandia experienced significant fluctuations in irradiance, temperature and carbonate chemistry over seasonal and tidal cycles. Rock pool carbonate chemistry was predictable (R ² = 0.82, P < 0.0001) by photodose (summed irradiance) plus water temperature, but not significantly related to photophysiology. In contrast, Corallina and Ellisolandia relative maximum electron transfer rate showed a significant negative relationship (R ² = 0.65, P < 0.0001) with irradiance plus water temperature. At a seasonal resolution, photoacclimation to maximize both light harvesting during winter months and photoprotection during summer months was observed for all species. Dynamic photoinhibition was apparent over both summer and winter tidal emersion, in relation to irradiance fluctuations. More effective photoinhibition was apparent during summer months, with greater sensitivity to irradiance and slower recovery in F _v/F _m, observed during winter. With sustained high irradiance over tidal emersion, the establishment of high pH/low inorganic carbon conditions may impact photochemistry. This study represents the first assessment of C. officinalis, C. caespitosa and E. elongata photophysiology underpinned by clear species concepts and highlights their ability to adapt to the dramatically fluctuating conditions experienced in intertidal rock pools.     

Larval depletion by ascidians has little effect on settlement of epifauna

Ascidian densities were manipulated while controlling for negative effects of biodeposition and space preemption to examine the effects of ascidian filter-feeding on larval recruitment in St. Joseph Bay and near Turkey Point, Florida (Northern Gulf of Mexico, Florida, USA). Using three different experimental designs during 1984 and 1985, recruitment near living Styela plicata or Molgula occidentalis was as high as recruitment near ascidian models. Disruption of flow by ascidian bodies had little effect on settlement. Predation rates by ascidians on larvae in six phyla were high in laboratory experiments. The field effects of larval depletion by solitary ascidians are apparently obscured by other factors influencing the abundance of recruiting larvae. Consumption of larvae in the laboratory cannot be used to assume significant inhibitory effects in the field.     

Growth cycle and related vertical distribution of the thecosomatous pteropod Spiratella (“Limacina”) helicina in the central Arctic Ocean

The growth cycle and related vertical distribution of the thecosomatous pteropod Spiratella (“Limacina”) helicina (Phipps) were studied. S. helicina has a life cycle of approximately 1.5 to 2 years in the central Arctic Ocean (Canada Basin). It spawns mainly during the spring to summer period, and on a small scale during the winter. The young double their sizes during the winter months of October to May, slow down in growth until late summer, and attain maximum size in early winter. The oldest disappear by late March. Gonadal tissue was first seen in young pteropods of 0.7 mm diameter, the predominant size from February to April. S. helicina 0.8 mm in diameter, the size predominant from May through July, are mature and hermaphroditic. Growth during the winter months suggests that particulate organic matter is available during this period to these obligate ciliary feeders. Vertical distribution is size and season-dependent. The youngest specimens collected (0.2 to 0.4 mm) were found concentrated in the first 50 m. The larger sizes dispersed during the summer months, and tended to concentrate in the top 150 m during the rest of the year. They aggregated in the top 50 m from late winter through early spring, and fall through early winter; then concentrated in the 100 to 50 m level until the end of winter. Numerous environmental factors seem to be involved in determining the vertical distribution of the species in the central Arctic Ocean.     

Growth,survivorship, life-span,and sex change in the hermaphroditic shrimp<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Lysmata wurdemanni</Emphasis> (Decapoda: Caridea: Hippolytidae)

Lysmata wurdemanni (Gibbes) is a protandric simultaneous hermaphrodite. All individuals first mature as a male-phase individual (MP) and then later change to a female-phase individual (FP) that spawns and broods embryos but can also mate as a male. A Gulf of Mexico population was sampled monthly for 1 year and bimonthly the next. Estimates of basic population parameters were obtained from cohort analysis to reveal possible factors explaining the unusual sexual biology of L. wurdemanni as well as the broad variation in the size (age) of change from MP to FP. Growth rates of individuals from cohorts varied from 4–7 mm carapace length year ^-1. Growth of small MPs in the laboratory was somewhat faster but concordant with growth rates estimated from field samples. The period from recruitment to >50% sex change in cohorts varied from 3 months to 1 year. In the laboratory, the size and interval to sex change was similar to that of the most rapidly changing cohort observed. Survivorship of cohorts was high until later in life; life-span was estimated to be 12–18 months. Rates of sex change were highest from late winter through spring, in time for the spring–summer breeding season. The size and age of sex change in cohorts were related to the season of recruitment. MPs recruited from late winter to mid-spring rapidly changed to FPs at a relatively small size. A majority of MPs recruited in the summer and autumn did not change to FPs until the following late winter to spring, and they did so at a larger size. Rates of sex change were not correlated with the sexual composition of the population. We conclude that seasonal factors related to female breeding greatly influence sex change in L. wurdemanni. We found no evidence to support demographically influenced and socially mediated environmental sex determination, which has been suggested for L. wurdemanni and other sex-changing caridean shrimps.     

Seasonal variation in the effects of ocean warming and acidification on a native bryozoan, Celleporaria nodulosa

Ocean warming and acidification are co-occurring stressors likely to affect marine biota through climate-driven change to the ocean. We investigated the effects of increased temperature and lowered pH, solely and in combination, on the growth of the endemic Australian bryozoan, Celleporaria nodulosa. Two temperatures and three pH levels were fully crossed in experimental treatments performed in winter 2008 (August) and summer 2009 (February/March). Fragments of C. nodulosa colonies (clones) were collected from Coffs Harbour, NSW, Australia, (30°18′S, 153°09′E) and elongation of colonies was assessed periodically over a 12-day incubation period. Lowered pH in winter significantly decreased growth. Elevated temperatures during the summer significantly impeded the growth of bryozoan colonies, possibly masking the effect of ocean acidification and discovering a maximal thermal tolerance at around 27 °C for C. nodulosa. The effects of decreased pH and increased temperature may be seasonally dependent and particularly acute during the summer months. Thermal stress may in fact be the initial stressor before ocean acidification, negatively affecting organisms in such a way that they are unable to survive before feeling the effects of ocean acidification.     

Susceptibility of non-indigenous ascidian species in British Columbia (Canada) to invertebrate predation

Non-indigenous ascidians are known to significantly alter the structure and composition of benthic communities and adversely affect shellfish aquaculture by fouling both the cultured species and the infrastructure. The ability of these species to persist in new locations and their current and potential distributions are dependent upon physiological tolerances to environmental factors and biotic resistance to competition and predation. Despite significant data on global invasion patterns, potential biotic resistance to non-indigenous ascidians is poorly understood. We identified potential predators of four non-indigenous ascidians (Styela clava, Botryllus schlosseri, Botrylloides violaceus, and Didemnum vexillum) in British Columbia (BC), Canada in order to: (1) assess the potential for biotic interference to limit the establishment and/or spread of these ascidian species in BC, and (2) identify candidate species to be used as ascidian biofouling control agents in shellfish aquaculture. Using a series of single- and multiple-choice laboratory experiments, potential benthic predators (including various species of molluscs, echinoderms, and arthropods) were offered non-indigenous ascidians as prey. The sea urchins Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis and Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, the sea stars Dermasterias imbricata and Evasterias troschelii, the nudibranch Hermissenda crassicornis, and the crabs Cancer productus and Carcinus maenas were found to consume one or more species of non-indigenous ascidians in single-choice experiments. However, when provided a choice, all predators chose their respective preferred food over ascidians. Thus, predation alone is unlikely to prevent large-scale establishment and spread of non-indigenous ascidians in BC, but it may have the potential to significantly reduce localized populations of ascidians. Green sea urchins, S. droebachiensis, were found to be efficient grazers of all four ascidian species, consuming 12.7 ± 5.14 cm² (mean ± SD) of adult B. violaceus over a 3-day period, 15 ± 3.7 juvenile colonies of B. violaceus over a 2-day period, and 63 ± 28.8 juvenile colonies of B. schlosseri over a 2-day period. Using sea urchins as biological control organisms may significantly reduce ascidian fouling in shellfish aquaculture.     

Latitudinal patterns of shell thickness and metabolism in the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica along the east coast of North America

The goal of this study was to quantify growth and metabolic responses of oysters to increased temperatures like those that will occur due to global warming. Impact of temperature on eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) shell growth and metabolism was investigated by sampling 24 sites along the eastern North American seaboard ranging from New Brunswick, Canada, to Florida, USA, in March and August 2013. There was a positive correlation between oyster shell thickness and site temperature. At southern sites, shells were up to 65 % thicker than at the northernmost site, likely due to higher precipitation of CaCO₃ in warmer water. This was supported by laboratory experiments showing that thicker shells were produced in response to temperatures 2, 4, and 6 °C above ambient seawater temperatures (8–14 °C) in Connecticut, USA. Field experiments with oyster respiration were conducted during winter and summer at 13 sites to compare responses to thermal stress with latitude. Respiration rates were much higher during summer than winter, but the combination of summer and winter data fell along the same exponential curve with respect to temperature. At all sites, temperature-specific metabolic rates at elevated temperatures were lower than predicted, indicating significant seasonal acclimatization by C. virginica.     

Premières données sur la longévité, le rythme de ponte et la fécondité de Scolelepis cf. fuliginosa (polychète,spionidé) en élevage

Adult Scolelepis cf. fuliginosa Claparède, raised from laboratory-born larvae, have been cultivated at a temperature of 18.5°C for weeks or months. They were offered artificial food only. They attain sexual maturity after 39 to 157 days. As soon as sexing is possible, the polychaetes are transferred to small dishes and paired. Egg laying extends throughout the whole life cycle at 4.6 day intervals; this interval tends to increase with age and size. Egg production varies greatly, at the beginning of reproduction, productivity increases, then fluctuates considerably around a mean value which may be very different in different pairs. There are also important variations in the total number of eggs between pairs; the reasons for this are still unknown. An hypothesis is presented on the factors controlling egg release: it is suggested that the worms' energy budget makes egg laying possible only in winter and spring; at higher temperatures, energy release is insufficient for egg production, owing to the poor nutritional level. According to this hypothesis, temperature affects reproduction indirectly.     

Die verbreitung der kaltwasser- und der warmwasserfauna der Appendicularien im nördlichen Nordatlantischen Ozean im Spätwinter und Spätsommer 1958

The Appendicularia caught in vertical hauls during the cruises of R.V. “Anton Dohrn” and R.V. “Gauß” in the northern North Atlantic Ocean, in late winter and late summer of the International Geophysical Year (I.G.Y.), 1958, were investigated. In addition, material caught during spring, 1955 by R.V. “Anton Dohrn” was used (Figs. 1 and 2; Tables 1 and 2). Seasonal differences are revealed in the appendicularian fauna in the open ocean between 40° and 65° northern latitude. Among the species caught (Table 2) in 1955, northwest of the Hebrides, Pelagopleura australis Bückmann 1923 (Fig. 3) is of special interest. This species has hitherto only been found in antarctic and southern waters; it is, however, possible that Sinistroffia scripsii Tokioka 1957 is a synonym. In the same place, a new form of Fritillaria venusta Lohmann was found, which is described as F. venusta f. replicata n.f. (Fig. 4). The hitherto known form should be named F. venusta f. bicornis. In Figs. 5 to 7, the species dominating in single catches are indicated by symbols. A borderline between the areas of cold-water and warm-water forms can be drawn. This line is located farther to the North in late summer than in late winter. In the eastern part of the area investigated, the difference amounts to 5° latitude. Warm-water species prevail over cold-water species or appear in equal numbers in both seasons in places where water with temperatures above 11°C is found within the upper 100 m (Figs. 8 and 9). It is, however, known that Oikopleura dioica thrives also at temperatures of 10°C and below; this was also found in the spring of 1955. Cold-water species exhibited higher frequencies as well as abundances, in the late summer than in the late winter of 1958. This fact is chiefly due to an increase in individual numbers of the most important boreal species, Oikopleura labradoriensis, but also of the arctic O. vanhoeffeni and the boreal Fritillaria borealis typica. Relative to O. labradoriensis, the population of F. borealis typica decreases in late summer. During spring 1955, both species exceeded the 1958 values by far. This is considered to be the result of annual, rather than seasonal, differences. The composition of the warm water fauna (Tables 4 and 5) reveals considerable seasonal differences. In late winter, O. longicauda is the most abundant species; it prevails in almost all warm-water catches. In late summer, it is outweighed by O. dioica and O. fusiformis in the total catch, by O. dioica in many single catches in the whole warm-water area, by O. fusiformis in its north eastern part in a few very rich catches, together with Fritillaria pellucida. For size comparison of the individnals, standard trunk length could not be used because of the generally bad state of preservation. In Oikopleura, the lengths of the left stomach lobe were measured instead. It is, however, to be taken into account that the regression of body length to the stomach length (left side) is different at different stages of maturity. In ripening and ripe individuals, body length increases at a higher rate because of growths in length of the gonads. The regressions were calculated for 3 maturity stages (A, B, C; Figs. 10, 12 and 14) of O. labradoriensis and O. vanhoeffeni. In O. longicauda, the specimens were distinctly smaller during late summer, and the proportion of juveniles (stage A) was much higher (Fig. 11). Possibly, this is caused by a reproduction rate still reduced during late winter, but increasing later in the year. O. labradoriensis shows similar, though less pronounced, differences in the proportion of maturity stages, and no significant differences in size composition (Fig. 13). The 1955 material contains a much higher proportion of mature individuals than either cruise of 1958. Similar conditions as in O. longicauda cannot, therefore, be assumed to be involved in regard to O. labradoriensis, at least not at present. There were more mature O. vanhoeffeni individuals present in spring 1955, but they were much smaller than during late summer 1958. No explanation for this observation can, at present, be offered.     

Temporal, spatial, and body size effects on growth rates of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the Northwest Atlantic

In response to a call from the US National Research Council for research programs to combine their data to improve sea turtle population assessments, we analyzed somatic growth data for Northwest Atlantic (NWA) loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) from 10 research programs. We assessed growth dynamics over wide ranges of geography (9–33°N latitude), time (1978–2012), and body size (35.4–103.3 cm carapace length). Generalized additive models revealed significant spatial and temporal variation in growth rates and a significant decline in growth rates with increasing body size. Growth was more rapid in waters south of the USA (<24°N) than in USA waters. Growth dynamics in southern waters in the NWA need more study because sample size was small. Within USA waters, the significant spatial effect in growth rates of immature loggerheads did not exhibit a consistent latitudinal trend. Growth rates declined significantly from 1997 through 2007 and then leveled off or increased. During this same interval, annual nest counts in Florida declined by 43 % (Witherington et al. in Ecol Appl 19:30–54, 2009) before rebounding. Whether these simultaneous declines reflect responses in productivity to a common environmental change should be explored to determine whether somatic growth rates can help interpret population trends based on annual counts of nests or nesting females. Because of the significant spatial and temporal variation in growth rates, population models of NWA loggerheads should avoid employing growth data from restricted spatial or temporal coverage to calculate demographic metrics such as age at sexual maturity.     

The occurrence and effects of Mytilicola intestinalis in Mytilus edulis

Mytilicola intestinalis was observed in the mussel Mytilus edulis in increasing numbers for the first time at Brighton (England), in October 1966; the populations here and at Whitstable were examined. Mussels exposed high in the littoral zone were less heavily infected than those lower down, the degree of infection being directly related to the duration of exposure in each tidal cycle. Silt in the intestine of the mussel is considered to act as a controlling factor in numbers of parasites present at Whitstable. Egg-bearing copepods were present in samples throughout the year, suggesting that breeding is not interrupted by the winter. Evidence indicates that juvenile stages of the parasite cause most damage to the host, due in part to their presence in the ramifications of the hepatopancreas. Recovery of the mussel from the effects of parasitation is rapid, following a reduction in parasite population density and number of juveniles. In the laboratory, M. edulis is more rapidly affected by lack of food at 10 °C than M. intestinalis. No dead parasites were seen during 4 months of laboratory storage. Juvenile parasites continned to mature, indicating that this period of time may be required for Mytilicola intestinalis to reach maturity at 10°C.     

Respiration,pumping activity and heart rate in Ciona intestinalis exposed to fluctuating salinities

Specimens of Ciona intestinalis L. were exposed to both gradual (sinusoidal) and abrupt (square-wave) salinity fluctuations and the changes in pumping activity and oxygen sonsumption monitored. Heart rate was monitored under steady state conditions using a new in vivo method, and pumping activity was monitored as spontaneous squirting by use of a pressure transducer. Oxygen consumption was also monitored under steady state conditions and under conditions of declining oxygen tension. It was found that during periods of regular beating the mean heart rate for 5 ascidians was 13.2 beats min^-1 for the branchial pacemaker and 32.6 beats min^-1 for the visceral pacemaker. Regular periods of beating lasted for approximately 1 min, followed by periods of irregular activity prior to heart beat reversal. The heart beat became irregular and reversal occurred sporadically when the ascidians were exposed to dilute seawater. The ascidians showed a pumping rate of 14 squirts per hour in full-strength seawater. This rate declined during decreasing salinity and ceased entirely when the external seawater concentration reached approximately 60% seawater (100%=32% S). During periods of decreased salinity, the siphons were tightly closed and oxygen consumption was zero. The rate of oxygen consumption by C. intestinalis decreased during decreasing salinities and there was no evidence of an oxygen debt. Oxygen consumption under steady state conditions varied with body weight according to the following: oxygen consuption =0.515 W ^0.831 (where W is body weight). The rate of oxygen consumption was found to be dependent on the external oxygen tension.     

Reproductive cycle of the sea urchin Holopneustes purpurascens (Temnopleuridae: Echinodermata)

This study documents the annual reproductive cycle of the Temnopleurid echinoid Holopneustes purpurascens near Sydney. H. purpurascens reached sexual maturity between 11 and 26 mm diameter and was gonochoristic. The sequence of oogenesis was similar to previously described echinoids. However, the proportion of eggs at each stage showed no temporal pattern in abundance, suggesting that vitellogenesis is continuous throughout the year. Spermatogenesis was also similar to other echinoids and showed a significant increase in the proportion of partially spawned testes in spring, followed by a similar increase in the proportion of partially spawned testes in late spring and summer. Gonad indices showed a peak in weight from late winter to mid-spring (9.10ǃ.47 for females; 6.28ǂ.43 for males; mean-SE), then a decline for both sexes. Although spawning was variable over time, there was a peak in the proportion of spawning from late winter to early summer that correlated with the observed peaks in gonad indices and gametogenic cycles. The demographic implications of this reproductive pattern are that new recruits can enter the population through synchronous spawning during the breeding period, and smaller haphazard spawning events at other times of the year.     

Non-indigenous ascidians in southern California harbors and marinas

Southern California's many large harbors form an important coastal ecosystem, yet they are also a␣major destination for thousands of pleasure craft and cargo vessels that have often traveled great distances. Many groups of marine organisms, including ascidians, have now been documented as undergoing range extensions as a consequence of rapid ship-transport between distant harbors phenomenon. This has resulted in a rapid increase in the rate of introductions of non-indigenous species worldwide, yet these effects of boat traffic remain largely unstudied in southern California. Ascidians are sessile marine filter-feeders, hermaphroditic, and often self-fertilizing; many species are tolerant of a wide range of environmental conditions, can reach sexual maturity in just a few weeks, and have a long breeding season. This paper documents the arrival of 14␣non-indigenous species in southern California harbors␣during this century, 13 of which have persisted:␣four prior to the 1960s (Cionaintestinalis, Styelaclava, S.␣plicata, Botryllusschlosseri), another by 1972 (S.␣canopus, formerly S. partita), and 8 since 1983 [C.␣savignyi, Ascidia zara, Ascidia sp., Polyandrocarpa zorritensis, Symplegma brakenhielmi (formerly S. oceania, and S. reptans, Microcosmus squamiger, and Molgula␣manhattensis)]. We estimate the relative abundance and seasonal fluctuations of both non-indigenous and native ascidians in all harbors in southern California from San Diego to Santa Barbara based upon the historical record, our 35 yr of field notes, and our recent surveys carried out during fall 1994, spring and fall 1995, fall 1996 and spring 1997. Possible points of origin of the exotics and predictions on further U.S. Pacific coast range-extensions are included. The concomitant decline in numbers and species of native ascidians in the harbors of southern California during this century is also reviewed. Received: 4 March 1997 / Accepted: 26 September 1997     

Seasonal change of species composition,abundance, and reproduction of solitary entoprocts in Okinawa Island,the Ryukyu Archipelago,Japan

Monthly samplings of solitary entoprocts were carried out at Mizugama and Ginowan Fishery Port, Okinawa Island, the central Ryukyus, Japan from November 2000 to November 2001. We examined the entoproct populations on the glass slides that had been placed at the two sites for 2 months, and a total of 18,322 individuals of solitary entoprocts were recorded. They were Loxomitra mizugamaensis, L. ryukyuensis, L. tetraorganon, Loxosomella aloxiata, L. intragemmata, L. lecythifera, L. monocera, L. stomatophora, and Loxocorone allax. Our analyses indicate that (1) the abundance of solitary entoprocts in this region is high in summer and low in winter, (2) most species reproduce by budding all year round, and (3) sexual reproduction is restricted to a short period in summer (July or August).     

Analysis of an intertidal population of the amphipod Gammarus palustris using a modified version of the egg-ratio method

An intertidal population of Gammarus palustris Bousfield was sampled over a 23-month period and analyzed by a modified form of the egg-ratio method. Total numbers and size-frequency distributions revealed small numbers in the early spring which later increased to a peak in the summer months. This was followed by a marked reduction near the end of sumer and a subsequent rise in numbers during the early fall. Finally there was a second decrease to very low numbers in the late fall and early winter. Average brood size was calculated and used as an indication of food limitation. Attempts to correlate this with per capita rate of change (r), birth rate ( \((\hat b)\) and death rate ( \((\hat d)\) ) suggested that the population increase in the early summer was food-rather than predator-limited. The late summer decline appears to be the result of predation pressure as well as food limitation. The fall peak is attributed to juvenile release from ovigerous femals escaping previous predation and to an increase in adult males resulting from a release in predation pressure. The winter decline may be due to adverse environmental conditions.     

Population and reproductive biology of two sibling amphipod species from ascidians and sponges

 The population dynamics and reproductive biology of an ascidian- and a sponge-dwelling amphipod were examined. The two undescribed amphipod species, Leucothoe“ascidicola” and L.“spongicola”, are closely related to each other, and occur in ascidians and sponges, respectively, along the Florida Atlantic coast. L. “ascidicola” was abundant in solitary ascidians during fall 1997, disappeared during spring/early summer, and became abundant again in September 1998. During the time when L. “ascidicola” were absent from their hosts, a copepod became a frequent inhabitant of the ascidians but disappeared again when L.“ascidicola” returned to the ascidians in September 1998. The numbers of L.“spongicola” in sponges increased substantially during spring, when high reproductive activity was observed. Following this reproductive peak, both adult and juvenile amphipods apparently left the sponges, and during the summer amphipod numbers in the sponges were very low. Another small amphipod species, which often co-occurred with L.“spongicola”, showed less seasonal variation and was found in sponges throughout the whole study period. The percentage of ovigerous females per host unit was usually lower in the ascidian-dwelling than in the sponge-dwelling amphipods. In solitary ascidians, L.“ascidicola” amphipods usually occurred in groups of several adults, yet there never was more than one ovigerous female per ascidian. In contrast, several ovigerous L.“spongicola” females were found to cohabit in the same spongocoel. This suggests that intrasexual aggression may be stronger among reproductive amphipod females in the ascidians than in sponges. The size distributions of juvenile cohorts indicate that juvenile L.“ascidicola” remain for relatively long time periods in the parental ascidian, where they may reach sexual maturity. In contrast, in L.“spongicola”, only cohorts of very small juveniles could be identified, indicating that juveniles disperse shortly after emerging from the female's brood pouch. It is concluded that extended parental care is of very short duration or does not occur in the sponge-dwelling amphipod L. “spongicola”, possibly because fast-growing sponges with a highly branched spongocoel system do not allow long-lasting coexistence of parent-offspring groups. In contrast, the discrete character of the solitary ascidians may enhance the potential for exclusion of other species, resource monopolization by reproductive females, and furthermore for long-lasting extended parental care in the ascidian-dwelling amphipod. Groups of single parents together with cohorts of large juveniles are reported in the literature for amphipods and isopods from brachiopods, bivalves and ascidians, suggesting that these discrete biotic microhabitats may favor the evolution of extended parental care in peracarid crustaceans. Received: 30 July 1999 / Accepted: 8 May 2000     

Viable embryogenesis of the winter flounder Pseudopleuronectes americanus from - 1.8° to 15°C

Pseudopleuronectes americanus spawns in late winter near New York, and its eggs may be found in shallow water under ice at temperatures below the usual freezing point of vertebrate tissues. Survival and duration of development at a variety of constant temperatures were recorded for artificially fertilized eggs in the laboratory. Many eggs hatched into normal larvae after 2 months at the lowest temperature tried,-1.8°C. The upper lethal temperature was about 15°C. There was a linear relation between log time and temperature in the minimum mortality range (0° to 10°C), with a Q₁₀ of about 4.8.