Non-timber forest products certification in India: opportunities and challenges

Forest certification has emerged as a marketing tool for linking the good forest management practices with the environmentally conscious consumers. Its genesis can be attributed to the society’s concern for the social and environmental significance of forests. Forest management certification when coupled with the chain-of-custody certification; then, the supply chain stages for such forest products can carry an ecolabel. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are of socio-economic and cultural importance for the forest dwelling communities, particularly for the tropical countries like India. India is home to an amazing diversity of plants, with over 46,000 plant species recorded to occur there. NTFP’s availability, utilization, commercialization, exploitation, management practices, policies and tenure systems in different parts of India have high diversity and variability. There is concern, however, that collection methods for most of NTFP species are destructive and wild populations are declining as a result. Thus, the harvest of NTFPs is coming under increasing scrutiny from certification programmes, as it plays a key role in the sustainable management of forest resources and community benefit worldwide. Thus, the present research paper highlights the issues relevant to certification of NTFPs in India, based on more than a decadal experience in dealing with this subject at Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal.     

Environmental health, development and economic empowerment of rural women in Nigeria

Sustainable development is a process that has social, cultural, economic and ecological dimensions. The necessity of improving the quality of life of rural women in terms of socio-economic aspects in developing countries like Nigeria is the aim of this study. The study was carried out in four villages of Tonkere district (Okeake, Abagboro, Elefon and Akiri), situated on expansive university land at Ile-Ife and typical of rural settings in Nigeria. Data were generated from group meetings, local government and individual interviews and surveys. In rural Nigeria, women’s essential contributions to overall environmental health, development and economy are negatively influenced by domestic tasks such as gathering of fuel woods and biomass for cooking. In reality, wood burning, kerosene stoves, and open fireplaces emit significant quantities of known health-damaging pollutants. The significant emissions of health-damaging pollutants per unit activity, combined with daily use in close proximity to rural human populations mean household biomass fuel use exposes total population to important pollutants resulting in ill-health and premature dead. Application of solar energy collectors and hosts of solar devices is an alternative energy sources in rural areas that could best improve women’s health, socially and economically, and positively add to ecological dimensions. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Non-timber forest products income and inequality status for communities around West Usambara Mountain Forests in Tanzania

Environment, Development and Sustainability - Despite the importance of forests to the communities in rural Tanzania, information is scarce regarding the contribution of non-timber forest products...     

Women NGOs and rural women empowerment activities in the Niger Delta, Nigeria

The study attempted to document beneficiaries’ perceptions on the contributions of Women NGOs (WNGOs) to the socio-economic empowerment of rural women in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The specific objectives of the study included: an assessment of WNGOs contributions to improvements’ in beneficiaries’ socio-economic activities and constraints affecting beneficiaries’ participation in WNGOs activities. An attempt was also made to determine the existence of a significant relationship between the pre and post-participation income of WNGOs beneficiaries. A sample size of 240 respondents from 48 Local Women Groups (LWGs), which are affiliated to three active WNGOs in four states of the Niger Delta were utilized for the study. Findings revealed that WNGOs cater for a broad spectrum of rural women. WNGOs were revealed to affect beneficiaries’ socio-economic statuses through increased income generation, health awareness and acquisition of food processing skills. Constraints affecting beneficiaries’ participation in WNGOs activities include: inadequate credit facilities, and poor utilization of credit advances, resulting in poor loan repayment levels. A direct relationship was also revealed to exist between increased beneficiary exposures to WNGOs credit facilities and increased beneficiary income. It is believed that WNGOs are capable of more effective inputs into human and community development activities. Recommendations are proffered in this respect. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Non-timber forest product dependency in the Central Himalayan foot hills

Rural households throughout the Himalayas are regarded as dependent on non-timber forest products (NTFPs), but very few studies have quantified this dependency. This case study, undertaken in two villages in the Central Himalayan foot hills in Nepal, documents the absolute and relative importance of commercial NTFPs to rural household economies. Data were collected in a one-year period and included interviews with 250 households using a semi-structured questionnaire and monthly interviews with four sub-local NTFP traders, two local traders and two central wholesalers. The conservative estimate of NTFP-derived cash income showed this to be a cornerstone in poorer household livelihood strategies and thus in poverty prevention. An annual average of 578 kg of commercial NTFPs was collected in the wild per household, providing poorer households with a cash income share of 44–78%. Better off households are not NTFP dependent but rely on income from crop production and livestock. Based on a net marketing margin analysis, showing that harvesters capture a large share of the Indian wholesaler price, it is argued that there is scope for pursuing NTFP-based strategies for poverty reduction through leasehold forestry and agroforestry. Both these options are compatible with conserving forest cover and forest corridor functions and may thus present a win–win scenario for livelihood improvement and conservation.     

Dependence on forest resources and tropical deforestation in Ghana

In Ghana, forests provide many products on which the local population subsists. However, these resources are depleting due to a variety of factors including agricultural expansion and over-exploitation of forest resources. This paper presents an analysis of the level of local dependence on forest resources and its implications for forest management in Ghana. The paper also outlines the causes of continuing deforestation in the studied region from the perspective of the local residents and discusses what role they could play in addressing the problem. The aim is to share more light on the current causes of deforestation and make suggestions for improved community-based forest management practices that could help to reduce deforestation. Primary data was collected through personal interviews and focus group discussions with 431 household heads randomly selected from three Forest Districts in Ghana. The survey showed that income from agriculture constituted 60% of the average total rural household income. Forest income provided 38% of total household income, and off-farm income 2%. The four most highly ranked causes of deforestation are poverty-driven agriculture, lack of alternative rural wage employment other than farming, household population levels, and conflict in traditional land practices. This shows a shift in the view of local people who in the past were quick to blame logging companies and government policies for deforestation. The majority of the respondents depended on wild animals like snail, bush meat, wild honey and wild and cultivated vegetables. Given the reasons for deforestation, much thought needs to go into agroforestry practices (e.g. snail farming, bee keeping, fish farming, and vegetable production) in efforts to reduce deforestation, which are currently less promoted. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Livelihood adaptations to climate variability: insights from farming households in Ghana

Climate variability poses a significant threat to many sectors of Sub-Saharan Africa’s economy. Agriculture is one of the most climate sensitive sectors because of its dependence on rain-fed cultivation. This paper identifies the main adaptation strategies used by farming households in the Sudan savannah and forest-savannah transitional agro-ecological zones of Ghana, in order to reduce the adverse impacts of climate variability on their livelihood activities. It combines questionnaire surveys, key informant interviews and a range of participatory methods. Results show that households employ a range of on- and off-farm adaptation strategies including changing the timing of planting, planting early maturing varieties, diversification of crops, support from family and friends, and changing their diets to manage climate variability. Results reveal that most households use adaptation strategies linked to livelihood diversification to adapt to the increased climate variability seen in recent decades. Most households now engage in multiple non-arable farming livelihood activities in an attempt to avoid destitution because of crop failure linked to climate variability (particularly drought). The findings suggest that policy makers need to formulate more targeted climate adaptation policies and programmes that are linked to enhancing livelihood diversification, as well as establishing communication routes for farming communities to better share their knowledge on successful local climate adaptation strategies.     

Contract farming and the adoption of climate change coping and adaptation strategies in the northern region of Ghana

In climate change adaptation, contract farming can facilitate the adoption of coping and adaptation strategies, but such dynamics are less understood in the literature. This study uses primary data collected from a cross section of crop farmers in northern Ghana and a simultaneous equation systems approach to examine the links between contract farming and adoption of climate change coping and adaptation strategies. The major coping and adaptation strategies used by farmers include spraying of farms with chemicals, row planting, mixed farming, mixed cropping and crop rotation. Econometric results confirm that contract farming enhances the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies, but there is also a feedback effect on contract farming, such that farmers adopting more adaptation strategies have higher probabilities to get contract offer. This makes contract farming a viable policy instrument to consider in climate change adaptation. Furthermore, land ownership and extension services exert significant positive influence on adoption. As much as possible, coping and adaptation strategies should effectively be communicated to crop farmers. Policy-wise, development actors and successive governments in Ghana should encourage and facilitate contract or group farming, as was in the case of the National Block Farming, led by Ghana’s Ministry of Food and Agriculture.     

An empirical assessment of rural livelihood assets from gender perspective: evidence from Ghana

Poverty studies have demonstrated that a group’s ability to escape poverty is largely dependent on the types of assets that the group’s members possess. A major claim that has been asserted with limited empirical evidence in the asset literature is the gender disparity dichotomy. Using rural Ghana as a case study, we assess the asset levels of farm households from a gender perspective. In doing so, we theorized and empirically tested assets on case bases. A household questionnaire survey was used to collect data from two hundred households in the Fanteakwa district of eastern Ghana. An asset index was used to compute the asset levels, while Kruskal–Wallis statistics was employed to compare the significance of the temporal changes. The results show a minimum level of asset endowment. Natural, social and financial assets were the three most endowed assets, with physical and human assets being the least. A gender analysis shows no significant difference, even though the levels of assets for the female-headed households were slightly higher than those of the male-headed households. However, the study found a 22.7% increment in the accumulation of financial assets among the female-headed households over the last 5 years compared to a 9.3% decrement in the same assets for their male-headed counterparts. Applying our theory, the results present an unbalanced and unstable asset situation among the household heads. We call for improvement, in physical and human assets. The overall study results imply an improvement in gender-asset accessibility in the context of rural Ghana.     

Women farmers’ perceived indices of occurrence and severity of observed climate extremes in rural Savannah,Ghana

Environment, Development and Sustainability - Climate extremes over the years have been a major concern for the globalized world. The hardest hit from these climate extremes are women farmers with...     

Multiple values from the forest: contribution of non-timber forest products to livelihoods of local communities in Northeastern Thailand

Environment, Development and Sustainability - Local residents near forests often collect non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for a variety of reasons, including food, medicine, firewood, religious...     

Assessment of the processing and sale of marine fish and its effects on the livelihood of women in Mfantseman Municipality,Ghana

Fish is a key source of protein for many households in Ghana. It is also an essential source of income to many households in the coastal communities of Ghana. The importance of the fisheries sector to the socio-economic development of the country cannot be over emphasised. Women dominate the fishing value chain in Ghana but paradoxically, the study of their activities has not attracted the attention of researchers and policy makers. This study examined the processing and sale of smoked marine fish and its effects on the livelihood of women in Mfantseman Municipality. The survey was conducted in four communities. A sample size of 363 was drawn from women in the industry and institutions whose activities are related to the industry. The data were analysed using quantitative and qualitative methods. Findings from the study revealed that the industry offers employment opportunity for the majority of women in the municipality, and it is an important source of income to them. Further, the industry has potentials for reducing poverty and enhancing economic empowerment of women in the district. However, women in the industry are confronted with challenges which include health risks that erode whatever gains made by them. The study concludes that the municipal assembly must spearhead and provide a conducive environment for this economic activity to flourish as a way of reducing poverty among women in the municipality.     

Conversion of specialised dairy farming systems into sustainable mixed farming systems in Cuba

From the 1960s onwards, a ‘High External Input’ dairy production model was applied widely in Cuba. Overall milk production of the national herd increased considerably, but the system was inefficient from both a financial and energetic point of view. In the early 1990s, after the abrupt end of inflow of capital and other resources from Eastern Europe, the dairy sector collapsed. In the short term, the modern infrastructure of milk production deteriorated and the sector experienced profound vulnerability. However, in the longer term, this situation stimulated a search for more sustainable approaches, such as low external input Mixed Farming Systems (MFS). The current study aimed to evaluate two small scale prototype farms to assess the implications of converting ‘Low External Input’ Dairy Farming Systems into MFS. Fifteen agro-ecological and financial indicators were selected and monitored over a 6-year period. Two configurations of MFS, i.e. the proportion of the farm area occupied by arable crops, were tested: 25 and 50%. Productivity, energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness all improved following conversion. Total energy input was low for both farms and decreased over time, whereas energy efficiency was high and increased over time. Human labour input was high directly following conversion, but decreased by one-third over the 6-year period. This study demonstrates, at an experimental scale, the potential of MFS to achieve ecological, productivity and financial advantages for dairy production in Cuba. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Rural women and agrotourism in the context of sustainable rural development: A case study from Turkey

As in many developing countries also in Turkey, agriculture is on the center of rural development and rural women are on the center of agriculture. Although they are main part as a major labor force at every stage of agricultural activity and undertake responsibilities such as domestic task and childcare, women do not profit from social and economic benefits proportionate to the responsibilities they have undertaken. Agrotourism is an alternative activity in the rural development process, which combines agriculture and tourism, improves natural resources, contributes the rural area socially and economically. The aim of this study is to examine the participation conditions of rural women to the agrotourism activities, which is considered as an option in the context of sustainable rural development, and to identify the possible social and economic implications of agrotourism on the rural women’s life, after determining the situation and importance of rural women in the agricultural activity. This research was carried out in three villages of Kalecik district of Ankara and data gathered from group meetings and surveys.     

Rural women and agrotourism in the context of sustainable rural development: A case study from Turkey

As in many developing countries also in Turkey, agriculture is on the center of rural development and rural women are on the center of agriculture. Although they are main part as a major labor force at every stage of agricultural activity and undertake responsibilities such as domestic task and childcare, women do not profit from social and economic benefits proportionate to the responsibilities they have undertaken.Agrotourism is an alternative activity in the rural development process, which combines agriculture and tourism, improves natural resources, contributes the rural area socially and economically.The aim of this study is to examine the participation conditions of rural women to the agrotourism activities, which is considered as an option in the context of sustainable rural development, and to identify the possible social and economic implications of agrotourism on the rural womens life, after determining the situation and importance of rural women in the agricultural activity. This research was carried out in three villages of Kalecik district of Ankara and data gathered from group meetings and surveys.Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Threatened access, risk of eviction and forest degradation: case study of sustainability problem in a remote rural region in India

Degradation of common pool resource (CPR) in developing countries has often been traced to high rate attached by poor people in discounting future flow of benefits, market failure, pressure on carrying capacity or sometimes property right failure. However, the concept of poorly enforced property right and particularly risk of eviction as a measure of insecurity of land tenure has not been adequately examined in the context of degradation of CPR. A game theoretic framework is developed where degradation of forest grazing land is explained in terms of changes in perceived risk of eviction from the encroached land. Logit regression is applied to empirically analyse the impact of perceived fear of reduced access and other variables on the state of degradation. For this purpose, a sample of seven villages is considered in tribal dominated region in West Bengal, India. It is observed that apart from a number of socio-economic variables like poverty, mutual trust and other incomes, perceived fear of eviction (represented as a dummy variable) arising from insecurity of forest land tenure, has a significant impact on forest degradation status in the study region.     

The livelihood potential of non-wood forest products: The case of Mbooni Division in Makueni District, Kenya

Forestry is a productive sector with significant effects on meeting national socio-economic and environmental functions as well as the improvement of rural livelihoods. Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) in particular have been widely advocated by conservation and development organisations as potential alternative livelihood strategies, particularly among vulnerable forest dependant households. Like in most tropical countries, NWFPs are relevant in the sustainable development of Kenya that is particularly endowed with important forest resources. Kenya hosts about 17 million ha of forested land (about 3.51% of the total Sub-Saharan Africa forest cover by 2000), of which about 16,865,000 ha is under natural forest (EarthTrends: Forests, grasslands and drylands, 2003). Outside the gazetted forests, there are other large tracks of forests in trust lands, including national parks and reserves, hill forest reserves and privately owned lands covering about 0.5 million ha (Kenya’s forest resource assessment in the EC-FAO Partnership Programme Report, 2000; The Kenya Forests Act, 2005). Woodlands, bushlands and wooded grasslands, mainly found in the arid and semi-arid lands cover 37.6 million ha, while forest plantations (started in 1946) cover about 170,000 ha of land (The Kenya forestry master plan, 1994–2020, 1994). In most NWFPs endowed regions of the country however, this socio-economic and environmental potential is still unrealized. We illustrate the latter by a case study of NWFPs use and management in four villages in Mbooni Division of Makueni District, Kenya. The division was chosen because of its relatively high NWFPs availability, particularly from South Mbooni forest that is located at a distance less than 5 km for an estimated 80% of the interviewed households. Data used for the analysis was collected through a fieldwork survey carried out on women (35+ years) in August, 2005. One hundred and sixty (160) NWFPs are harvested (from plant and animal species) and used mainly for food, income generation (supplemental) and medicinal purposes. A number of challenges limit women’s enjoyment of the full benefits from NWFPs exploitation, the overriding problem being their inadequacy (in quantity and/or quality). In this paper we discuss these commonly utilized and managed NWFPs plant species in Mbooni and their potential contribution to improved livelihoods and sustainable development in Mbooni, Kenya and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in general.     

Agricultural land use efficiency and food crop production in Ghana

Despite the low productivity of the extensive agriculture system, Ghana recorded the largest reduction of undernourishment in the past two decades. We used biophysical analysis to determine the efficiency and potentials of the extensive system and its future sustainability. The results indicate that food production in Ghana has increased steadily over the past two decades and correlated highly with cropped area and population (R ² < 0.85 and 0.82), but not with fertilizer (R ² = 0.06). Sufficient food production could be sustained in the short term. In the longer term, however, the food situation in Ghana appears precarious if population growth continues while land remains the same.     

Health and environmental costs of pesticide use in vegetable farming in Nepal

There is a growing concern of pesticide risks to human health, natural environment and ecosystems. Many previous economic valuations have accounted health aspects or environmental components, but rarely combined; thus, overall risk assessment is partially distorted. The study, conducted close to the capital of Nepal, addressed the health effects of pesticides on small-scale farmers and evaluated the monetary risks of pesticide use on human health and environmental resources. We also aim to establish the relationships among valuation methods. The paper adopts cost of illness, defensive expenditure and contingent valuation willingness to pay approach. The study concluded that the methods used for valuing pesticide risks to human and environmental health are theoretically consistent. The exposed individuals are likely to bear significant economic costs of exposures depending on geographical location, pesticide use magnitudes and frequency. Individuals are willing to pay between 53 and 79% more than the existing pesticide price to protect their health and environment. The integrated pest management training is less likely to reduce health costs of pesticide exposure, although it leads to higher investment in safety measures.