Brominated flame retardants in the Australian population: 1993-2009

Brominated flame retardants, including hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used to reduce the flammability of a multitude of electrical and electronic products, textiles and foams. The use of selected PBDEs has ceased, however, use of decaBDE and HBCD continues. While elevated concentrations of PBDEs in humans have been observed in Australia, no data is available on other BFRs such as HBCD. This study aimed to provide background HBCD concentrations from a representative sample of the Australian population and to assess temporal trends of HBCD and compare with PBDE concentrations over a 16 year period. Samples of human milk collected in Australia from 1993 to 2009, primarily from primiparae mothers were combined into 12 pools from 1993 (2 pools); 2001; 2002/2003 (4 pools); 2003/2004; 2006; 2007/2008 (2 pools); and 2009. Concentrations of ∑HBCD ranged from not quantified (nq) to 19 ng g(-1)lipid while α-HBCD and γ-HBCD ranged from nq to 10 ng g(-1)lipid and nq to 9.2 ng g(-1)lipid. β-HBCD was detected in only one sample at 3.6 ng g(-1)lipid while ∑(4)PBDE ranged from 2.5 to 15.8 ng g(-1)lipid. No temporal trend was apparent in HBCD concentrations in human milk collected in Australia from 1993 to 2009. In comparison, PBDE concentrations in human milk show a peak around 2002/03 (mean ∑(4)PBDEs=9.6 ng g(-1)lipid) and 2003/04 (12.4 ng g(-1)lipid) followed by a decrease in 2007/08 (2.7 ng g(-1)lipid) and 2009 (2.6 ng g(-1)lipid). In human blood serum samples collected from the Australian population, PBDE concentrations did not vary greatly (p=0.441) from 2002/03 to 2008/09. Continued monitoring including both human milk and serum for HBCD and PBDEs is required to observe trends in human body burden of HBCD and PBDEs body burden following changes to usage.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in human milk from Australia

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are flame retardants added to a multitude of products to reduce flammability. PBDEs have been widely detected and quantified in biota and humans in many industrialised countries from the Northern Hemisphere. However data concerning the levels of these compounds in the Australian population and environment remain limited. The objectives of this study were to determine PBDE concentrations and congener profiles in Australian human milk and compare this to concentrations found in other countries. Pooled human milk samples obtained from mothers residing in 12 regions of Australia were analysed by HRGC/HRMS for 18 PBDE congeners. In total, 157 human milk samples collected in 2002 and 2003 were divided into 17 regional pools. PBDEs were detected in all pools of human milk from Australia. The mean+/-standard deviation and median summation operatorPBDE concentrations were 11.1+/-3.2 and 11.0 ng g(-1) lipid, respectively with a range of 6.1-18.7 ng g(-1) lipid. The congener profile was dominated by BDE-47 followed by BDE-99, -100, -153, -154 and -183. Regional differences were evaluated, but no trends were observed. The data suggest regional differences are likely to be small if they exist at all. The concentrations of PBDEs found in Australian human milk were lower than those reported from North America but higher than those reported from Europe and Asia. Our results suggest that the exposure pathways which contribute to the PBDE body burden in the Australian population require a better understanding in order to determine future policy regarding their use and disposal.     

Large-scale evaluation of the current level of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in breast milk from 13 regions of Japan

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in 2004 in 105 breast milk samples collected from 13 regions of Japan (Hokkaido, Akita, Miyagi, Tokyo, Gifu, Fukui, Kyoto, Hyogo, Wakayama, Shimane, Yamaguchi, Kochi and Okinawa). Six congeners (BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153 and BDE-154) were determined by gas chromatography /mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Total PBDE levels ranged from 0.01 to 23.0 ng/g lipid (geometric mean (GM), 1.34 ng/g lipid). BDE-47 (GM, 0.66 ng/g lipid, 59% of sigmaPBDE) was the most abundant congener present in breast milk and was detected in 99% of the samples. Total PBDE levels were higher in northern Japan than in other regions. We analyzed the effects of occupation, age, smoking status, alcohol consumption and number of deliveries on total PBDE levels. None of these factors were significantly associated with the level of PBDEs. The present study revealed that the current level of exposure to PBDEs in Japan is lower than that in the USA or Sweden. GMs (ng/g lipid) (GSD, geometric standard deviation) and medians (ng/g lipid) of PBDE levels in each district are as follows: Hokkaido 2.70 (1.70), 2.74; Akita 4.49 (2.19), 5.44; Miyagi 1.77 (4.37), 1.11; Tokyo 1.39 (2.09), 1.63, Gifu 2.83 (4.79), 2.23; Fukui 1.05 (2.34), 1.18; Kyoto 1.31 (2.95), 1.33; Hyogo 1.02 (2.69), 0.88; Wakayama 1.33 (3.80), 1.70; Shimane 0.83 (2.51), 0.66; Yamaguchi 1.74 (2.82), 1.76; Kochi 0.50 (2.69), 0.74 and Okinawa 1.91 (2.75), 1.22. This is the first large-scale study of current PBDE levels in breast milk in Japan.     

Occurrence and congener specific profiles of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and their hydroxylated and methoxylated derivatives in breast milk from Catalonia

The presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) from mono to hepta brominated and 11 hydroxylated (OH-) and methoxylated (MeO-) PBDEs was examined in 37 breast milk samples collected from 11 mothers living in Barcelona. An extraction method based on accelerated solvent extraction followed by gas chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry was used to inequivocally identify all target compounds at the low pg g(-1) lw level. Data obtained were examined for absolute and relative concentrations and specific PBDE, OH- and MeO-PBDE congener patterns. Sigma PBDE concentration ranged between 1,161 and 1,372,797 pg g(-1) lw and BDEs 47, 99, 100, 153 and 183 accounted for more than 80% of the total PBDEs. All tri and tetra OH- and MeO-PBDEs compounds were detected at levels between 6 and 14,984 pg g(-1)lw. The median ratio OH/PBDE and MeO-PBDEs/PBDEs was from 2.9% to 1.6%, respectively, suggesting either that PBDE metabolism to OH- and MeO- derivatives is not an important degradation route in humans or either OH- and MeO-PBDEs are rapidly excreted. No significant correlation was observed between PBDEs and OH- and MeO-PBDE, although OH- and OMe-PBDEs co-occurred in mothers' milk (R(2)=0.5349). According to the daily intake of PBDEs and OH- and MeO-PBDEs, which was between 0.47 and 363 ng d(-1) (excluding a smoking donor), potential health risks associated with these compounds are assessed.     

Levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in breast milk from Beijing, China

The levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in breast milk from Beijing, China, were studied. The 6 predominant PBDEs congeners (BDE47, BDE99, BDE100, BDE153, BDE154 and BDE183) in 23 pooled breast milk samples from 205 mothers living in Beijing were measured. Mean and median of SigmaPBDEs concentrations in all samples were 1.12ngg(-1) lipid and 1.07ngg(-1) lipid, respectively. The Statistical difference in SigmaPBDEs concentrations was found between urban areas (1.22ngg(-1) lipid, n=14) and rural areas (0.97ngg(-1) lipid n=9). The sum of BDE47 and BDE153 accounted for more than 70% of SigmaPBDEs in most samples. The significant correlation was found between the SigmaPBDEs in pooled samples and average of consumption of food of animal origin in the pools in urban area. However, there was no correlation was found between the SigmaPBDEs in pooled samples and average of consumption of food of animal origin in the pools in rural area of Beijing. The current study showed that the level of PBDEs in breast milk from Beijing was lower than that from South China and some developed countries such as USA and Sweden.     

Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in milk of women from Catalonia, Spain

In this study, the concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in milk from women living in the vicinity of a new hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) in Catalonia, Spain, were determined. The study was performed after 4 years of regular operations in the facility and the present PCB levels were compared with baseline concentrations obtained in a pre-operational program. PCBs and PBDEs levels were determined by HRGC/HRMS in 15 samples. In the present study planar PCBs ranged from 1.3 to 6.3 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat with a mean value of 3.8 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat. After adding dioxin-like mono-ortho-PCBs the total PCB-TEQ concentrations ranged from 3.8 to 13.3 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat (mean value: 8.7 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat). A comparison of the current data with those obtained in the baseline study showed significant decreases for both planar and total WHO-TEQ of PCBs: 47.9% and 44.6%, respectively. PCB concentrations in milk of women living in urban zones were higher than those living near industrial areas (10.1 and 7.4 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat, respectively). Mean PBDE concentrations were 2.2 and 2.5 ng/g fat for women living in urban and industrial zones, respectively. Dietary intake of PCBs and PBDEs for a standard adult woman samples were 898 and 843 ng/day for PCBs, and 72 and 63 ng/day for PBDEs, for residents in urban and industrials areas, respectively. This study suggests that dietary intake is more relevant for human exposure to PCBs and PBDEs than living near the HWI.     

Comparison of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in fish, vegetables, and meats and levels in human milk of nursing women in Japan

At present, little is known about the occurrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in fish and food products sold in Japan. To investigate whether human exposure to PBDEs through the diet is significant, the concentrations of PBDEs were determined in fish and in meat and vegetables sold in two food markets in the city of Hirakata, Osaka prefecture. The concentrations of PBDEs in the breast milk of 12 primiparae nursing women at one month after delivery also were determined to ascertain the relationship between the levels found in the diet and levels in humans. sigma PBDE concentrations ranged between 21 and 1650 pg/g fresh weight in the edible tissues of five species of fish and one shellfish species. The highest concentrations were measured in yellow-fin tuna, followed by short-necked clam, salmon, yellowtail, mackerel and young yellowtail. Interestingly, sigma PBDE concentrations were not statistically significantly different in two cultured mackerel samples from Japan and mackerel collected from northern European waters. sigma PBDE concentrations in beef, pork and chicken meat (ranging between 6.25 and 63.6 pg/g fresh weight) and in three different vegetables (ranging between 38.4 and 134 pg/g fresh weight) were significantly lower than the concentrations in fish. In human milk, sigma PBDE concentrations ranged between 668 and 2840 pg/g lipid basis, which is comparable to the levels in populations of nursing women reported in Sweden and elsewhere. There was a strong positive relationship between PBDE concentrations in human milk and dietary intake of fish and shellfish, which was established in the women from responses to a questionaire on food consumption habits. The results of this study of food products commonly consumed in Japan and the levels found in nursing women raise a concern about low level PBDE contamination of fish and other foods intended for human consumption.     

Monitoring of PBDEs concentration in umbilical cord blood and breast milk from Korean population and estimating the effects of various parameters on accumulation in humans

In this study, we investigated concentration, congener distribution pattern, and effects of potential environmental factors that affect PBDE accumulation. We also estimated correlation between PBDE concentration and health status or thyroid function by analyzing 90 cord blood and 21 breast milk samples obtained from Korean population. Seven from tri- to hepta-BDEs were analyzed by solid phase extraction-high-resolution gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry (SPE-HRGC/HRMS). The total concentration of 7 PBDEs in cord blood was 2.786-94.64 ng g(-1) lipid and that in breast milk was 1.076-8.664 ng g(-1) lipid. Tetra-BDE (#47) was the predominant type of PBDE and was present at concentrations of over 40% in both sample types. A weak correlation was observed between the concentration of BDE28 and 153 and thyroid hormone concentration only in the breast milk samples. In children, a weak negative correlation was observed between free thyroxine (FT4) concentration and BDE28 concentration (0.302, p<0.05), while in mothers, a weak positive correlation was observed between thyroid hormone concentration and BDE153 concentration (0.403, p<0.05). No significant correlations between PBDE concentration and work and residential environments were found in this study, but a weak correlation between BDE concentration in cord blood and potential PBDE sources was confirmed by investigating the frequency of oil paint usage (0.510, p<0.001). A weak correlation was also found between PBDE concentration in breast milk during pregnancy and dietary habits such as green tea drinking (0.541, p=0.025) and Trichiuridae intake (0.565, p=0.015).     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in breast milk from the Pacific Northwest

Breast milk samples from 40 first-time mothers from the Pacific Northwest of the US and Canada were analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Total PBDEs (summation operator PBDEs), calculated by summing values for the 12 PBDEs congeners analyzed, ranged from 6 to 321 ppb (lipid weight) (mean=96 ppb; median=50 ppb). In approximately 40% of the women (15/40), summation operator PBDEs>100 ppb lw in their milk, and four samples had levels >250 ppb lw. PBDE 47 was the dominant congener in most samples, whereas PBDE 153 was predominant in a few (3/40). summation operator PCBs were calculated by summing values for the 82 PCB congeners analyzed, and ranged from 49 to 415 ppb (lipid weight) (mean=147 ppb; median=126 ppb). approximately 30% of the mothers (13/40) have summation operator PBDEs> summation operator PCBs in their milk samples, and approximately 65% (25/40) have BDE 47>PCB 153 in breast milk samples, with BDE 47 averaging 3-fold greater levels than PCB 153. Clearly, the lower brominated PBDEs are surpassing PCBs as a major environmental concern in North America, and are likely affecting significant portions of the populations in these regions. PBDEs have become a major persistent organic pollutant. However, there are no positive correlations between levels of summation operator PBDEs and summation operator PCBs, or between levels of PBDE 47 and PCB 153, suggesting there may be some differences in exposure pathways for PBDEs and PCBs in humans.     

Geographical distribution and accumulation features of PBDEs in human breast milk from Indonesia

The present study reports concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and organochlorines (OCs) in human breast milk from Indonesia covering urban, suburban and rural areas. PBDEs were detected in all the samples of the present study with total concentrations ranging from 0.49 to 13 ng/g lipid wt. Geographical distribution showed that concentrations of PBDEs were relatively uniform (p>0.05) and the levels were in the same order as those in Japan and some European countries, but were one or two order lower than North America. When compared to OCs, the level of total PBDEs was lower. The congener pattern was in accordance with other studies on human matrices, in which BDE-47 was the most abundant congener. Variations of PBDE congeners in human breast milk were further discussed to elucidate the potential exposure source(s) and pathways.     

PBDEs in the San Francisco Bay Area: measurements in harbor seal blubber and human breast adipose tissue

To explore the levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in California, samples from 11 archived harbor seals (Phoca vitulina Richardsi) from the San Francisco Bay and breast adipose tissue samples from 23 women were analyzed. The levels of PBDEs in human tissue samples were in the low ng/g fat range, with PBDEs 47, 153, 154, 99, and 100 as the major congeners. Average sigma PBDEs (86 ng/g fat) in these California women are the highest human levels reported to date. An inverse relationship between concentration of PBDEs and age of these women was apparent. The levels of PBDEs measured in harbor seal blubber were in the low ng/g to low microg/g fat range, with the same major congeners as those measured in the human tissues. PBDE 47 was the highest among all congeners measured in both human tissue and seal blubber samples. The concentrations of PBDEs in harbor seals in the San Francisco Bay have increased dramatically over the past decade, with current levels among the highest reported for this species.     

Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers, organochlorine compounds and nitro musks in mother's milk from Germany (Bavaria)

The aim of this study was to determine a new spectrum of substances that will be selected for future breast milk monitoring in Bavaria, Germany. Up to now, the analysis of breast milk in Bavaria was limited to selected organochlorine pesticides (OCP) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB). Information on background levels of toxicologically interesting substances, such as dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCB) or on flame retardants, such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) are very limited or not available for Bavaria. We present here levels on OCP, some nitro musks, indicator PCB, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF) and dl-PCB concentrations in breast milk collected at 12 weeks post-partum of 43 primiparous mothers living in Bavaria. The average concentrations of PCDD, PCDF and dl-PCB were 4.98, 4.93 and 9.92 pg WHO-TEQ g(-1) lipid, respectively. The mean contribution of PCDD, PCDF, non-ortho and mono-ortho PCB to the total WHO-TEQ is consistently about 25% each. Furthermore the concentration on PBDE in breast milk at two sampling points, 12 weeks and 16 weeks after delivery, were determined. Overall, 19 PBDE congeners were analysed, however the level of 12 PBDE congeners were below the limit of detection. BDE-153 and BDE-47 were the predominant congeners accounting for about 66% of the total PBDE. The means of the total concentrations of PBDE (five congeners) at the first and second sampling point were 1.90 and 2.03 ng g(-1) lipid, respectively. Based on our results the overall concentrations of the analysed substances in milk samples from Bavaria are consistent with the levels of breast milk samples of other European countries reflecting the low background body burden of these compounds.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in South China maternal and fetal blood and breast milk

Twenty-one-paired human fetal and maternal serum and 27 breast milk samples at South China were analyzed for concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Seven PBDE congeners (BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, -154, and -183) were quantified using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). This is the first report to present the residue levels of PBDEs in human samples of China. The concentrations of total PBDEs ranged from 1.5 to 17 ng/g in the samples and were within the range reported in European samples for a similar population, but lower than human tissue levels in North America. BDE-47 and -153 were the dominant PBDE congeners in all samples and accounted for 60% of the total PBDEs. Further research is needed to determine the exposure route of PBDEs and their health effects.     

Organohalogen compounds in human breast milk from Republic of Buryatia, Russia

Human breast milk samples collected during 2003/04 in Buryatia, a Russian autonomous republic, were analyzed in order to assess human exposure to organohalogen compounds including organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). When compared with available worldwide data, levels of HCB (23-880 ng/g lipid wt.), PCBs (69-680 ng/g lipid wt.), and HCHs (100-3700 ng/g lipid wt.) were relatively high, indicating elevated human exposure to these organochlorines (OCs) in Buryatia. In contrast to OCs, PBDE concentrations were low (0.46-1.7 ng/g lipid wt.). Out of 14 BDE congeners analyzed, BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-197, and BDE-207 were detected. Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of HCHs, HCB, CHLs, and PCBs by infants solely from human milk for 100%, 43%, 34%, and 17% of the samples, respectively, exceeded guideline thresholds. Although high EDIs raise concern for possible toxic effects of OCs, women in Buryatia are recommended to breastfeed due to numerous advantages of breastfeeding for mother and child.     

Brominated flame retardants and organochlorine pollutants in eggs of little owls (Athene noctua) from Belgium

Residues of brominated diphenylethers (PBDEs), organochlorinated pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in 40 eggs of little owls (Athene noctua), a terrestrial top predator from Belgium. The major organohalogens detected were PCBs (median 2,600 ng/g lipid, range 790-23 000 ng/g lipid). PCB 153,138/163, 170, 180 and 187 were the predominant congeners and constituted 71% of total sum PCBs. PBDEs were measurable in all samples, but their concentrations were much lower than for PCBs, with a range from 29-572 ng/g lipid (median 108 ng/g lipid). The most prevalent PBDE congeners in little owl egg samples were BDE 47, 99 and 153. This profile differs from the profile in marine bird species, for which BDE 47 was the dominant congener, indicating that terrestrial birds may be more exposed to higher brominated BDE congeners than marine birds. The fully brominated BDE 209 could be detected in one egg sample (17 ng/g lipid), suggesting that higher brominated BDEs may accumulate in terrestrial food chains. Brominated biphenyl (BB) 153 was determined in all egg samples, with levels ranging from 0.6 to 5.6 ng/g lipid (median 1.3 ng/g lipid). Additionally, hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) could be identified and quantified in only two eggs at levels of 20 and 50 ng/g lipid. OCPs were present at low concentrations, suggesting a rather low contamination of the sampled environment with OCPs (median concentrations of sum DDTs: 826 ng/g lipid, sum chlordanes: 1,016 ng/g lipid, sum HCHs: 273 ng/g lipid). Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and octachlorostyrene (OCS) were also found at low median levels of 134 and 3.4 ng/g lipid, respectively. Concentrations of most analytes were significantly higher in eggs collected from deserted nests in comparison to addled (unhatched) eggs, while eggshell thickness did not differ between deserted and addled eggs. No significant correlations were found between eggshell thickness and the analysed organohalogens.     

Brominated flame retardants and perfluorinated chemicals, two groups of persistent contaminants in Belgian human blood and milk

We assessed the exposure of the Flemish population to brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) by analysis of pooled cord blood, adolescent and adult serum, and human milk. Levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in blood (range 1.6-6.5 ng/g lipid weight, lw) and milk (range 2.0-6.4 ng/g lw) agreed with European data. Hexabromocyclododecane ranged between <2.1-5.7 ng/g lw in milk. Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) dominated in blood and ranged between 1 and 171 ng/mL and <0.9-9.5 ng/mL, respectively. Total PFC levels in milk ranged between <0.5-29 ng/mL. A significant increase in PBDE concentrations was detected from newborns (median 2.1) to the adolescents and adults (medians 3.8 and 4.6 ng/g lw, respectively). An identical trend was observed for PFOS, but not for PFOA. We estimated that newborn exposure to BFRs and PFCs occurs predominantly post-natally, whereas placental transfer has a minor impact on the body burden.     

Levels and distributions of polybrominated diphenyl ethers,hexabromocyclododecane, and tetrabromobisphenol A in sediments from Taihu Lake,China

The concentrations and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) were investigated in 28 sediment samples collected from Taihu Lake, Eastern China. The results showed that all three classes of compounds were detected in 28 sediment samples but that PBDEs were the main contaminants in the study area. The total PBDE concentrations ranged from 3.77 to 347 ng/g dry weight (dw) with a mean value of 72.8 ng/g dw, whereas the concentrations ranged from 0.168 to 2.66 and from 0.012 to 1.30 ng/g dw for HBCD and TBBPA, respectively. In all of the sediment samples, BDE-209 was the predominant congener, accounting for 95.9 to 98.6 % of the total PBDEs, which indicated that commercial mixtures of deca-BDEs were the main sources of PBDE contamination. Higher concentrations of PBDEs were found in samples collected from Meiliang Bay and Gonghu Bay near the inflow river, which suggested that inflow runoff might play an important role in the PBDE levels in Taihu Lake sediments.     

Comparisons of polybrominated diphenyl ethers levels in paired South Korean cord blood, maternal blood, and breast milk samples

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), commonly used flame retardants, have been reported as potential endocrine disruptor and neurodevelopmental toxicants, thus giving rise to the public health concern. The goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between umbilical cord blood, maternal blood, and breast milk concentrations of PBDEs in South Korean. We assessed PBDE levels in paired samples of umbilical cord blood, maternal blood, and breast milk. The levels of seven PBDE congeners were measured in 21 paired samples collected from the Cheil Woman’s Hospital (Seoul, Korea) in 2008. We also measured thyroid hormones levels in maternal and cord blood to assess the association between PBDEs exposure and thyroid hormone levels. However, there was no correlation between serum thyroxin (T4) and total PBDEs concentrations. The total PBDEs concentrations in the umbilical cord blood, maternal blood, and breast milk were 10.7 ± 5.1 ng g⁻¹ lipid, 7.7 ± 4.2 ng g⁻¹ lipid, and 3.0 ± 1.8 ng g⁻¹ lipid, respectively. The ranges of total PBDE concentrations observed were 2.28-30.94 ng g⁻¹ lipid in umbilical cord blood, 1.8-17.66 ng g⁻¹ lipid in maternal blood, and 1.08-8.66 ng g⁻¹ lipid in breast milk. BDE-47 (45-73% of total PBDEs) was observed to be present dominantly in all samples, followed by BDE-153. A strong correlation was found for major BDE-congeners between breast milk and cord blood or maternal blood and cord blood samples. The measurement of PBDEs concentrations in maternal blood or breast milk may help to determine the concentration of PBDEs in infant.     

Levels and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in various tissues of birds of prey

In the present study, concentrations and tissue distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs; IUPAC # 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, and 209) were examined in brain, adipose tissue, liver, muscle, and serum of birds of prey. Median SigmaPBDE levels (BDE 28-183) in the tissues of sparrowhawks ranged from 360 to 1900 ng/g lipid weight (lw), which was in general one order of magnitude higher than in the tissues of common buzzards (26-130 ng/g lw). There were no differences in PBDE congener patterns between the various tissues within individuals of a certain species. Inter-species differences in PBDE patterns and in particular the percentage of BDE 99, 100 and 153 were, however, pronounced between sparrowhawk and common buzzard. BDE 209 was detected in nearly all serum and in some liver samples, but not in any other tissues. This observation suggests that exposure to BDE 209 is low or that this congener is poorly accumulated. Passive (lipid content related) diffusion could not completely describe the PBDE tissue distribution, e.g. the lowest PBDE-load was measured in brain, a fairly lipid rich tissue.     

Distribution and temporal trend of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in one Shanghai municipal landfill, China

The scarcity of information on polybrominated diphenyl ethers’ (PBDEs) flow in landfill restricts the life cycle analysis of PBDEs. In this study, eight PBDE congeners (BDEs 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, and 209) in topsoil, vegetation leaves, leachate, and municipal aged refuse collected from Shanghai Laogang Municipal Landfill (SLML) were investigated. The present study revealed elevated PBDE concentrations in topsoil and proved PBDE leakage from SLML and vegetation uptake. BDE-209 was the predominant congener, and this could be due to massive usage of deca-BDE mixture in Shanghai. ΣPBDE concentrations in leachates treated by reed wetland and A²/O process fell in the low end of the worldwide range. ΣPBDE concentrations in aged refuse samples rose from under 50 ng/g dw in 1989 to the range of 5,150–5,718 ng/g dw in 2002. PBDE concentrations increase in aged refuse samples throughout the 1990s into the 2000s paralleled municipal solid waste output from 1991 to 2002 in Shanghai. Exponential increase in BDE-209 concentration in aged refuse suggested the increasing market demands for deca-BDE mixture after 1990 in China. Notably, the inventory of PBDEs in SLML was 28.7 MT, and the doubling time of BDE-209 in aged refuse was calculated to be 1.6 year. SLML can be considered as a source of PBDE and one main recipient of PBDE as well, receiving inputs predominantly from the PBDE-containing waste. Priority should be given to formulate regulation on PBDEs and sorting work before landfill disposal.