Viruses in surface and drinking waters

Over 114 different human enteric viruses are known. They are all excreted into sewage, and opportunities exist for them to find their way into water distribution systems. The characteristics of the illnesses caused by enteric viruses make their transmission by water difficult to recognize. Methods are not available for isolating all of the enteric viruses from water, so that finding any type of human virus in drinking water is an indication that other types may also be present. With improvements in technology, our laboratory has recently been able to detect group B coxsackieviruses, rotaviruses, and hepatitis A virus in chlorinated drinking water. At present, there are no uniform methods for concentrating, isolating, and identifying viruses in water. Emphasis should be placed on seeking uniformity in methods so that standards can be set for viruses in water.     

旅游活动影响下的岩溶地下水理化特征演化及其概念模型——以世界自然遗产地金佛山水房泉为例

为探究高强度旅游活动影响下岩溶地下水理化参数的演变特征,以重庆金佛山世界自然遗产地核心区水房泉岩溶流域为研究对象,在旅游旺季(冬季)对水房泉中各理化指标进行连续在线监测和分析。研究表明：水房泉在旅游活动高峰期前表现出自然背景条件下的水质特征,各理化指标波动较小;随着旅游高峰期的到来,水中的pH值、电导率(SpC)、溶解氧(DO)、浊度、方解石饱和指数(SIc)、二氧化碳分压(pCO2)、Ca2+、Mg2+、HCO-3等均产生了显著的波动。旅游活动排放的污水中含有微生物所需的有机质,以及硫酸和硝酸等酸类污染物,微生物呼吸作用产生的碳酸与酸类污染物一起会加剧岩溶地下管道的溶蚀,使地下水中富集碳酸盐岩溶蚀物Ca2+、Mg2+、HCO-3等(浓度增幅分别为10%、22%、26%);同时因污水中的污染物成分不同,导致高峰期间水房泉中的K+、Na+、Cl-、PO3-4、SO2-4的上升幅度均比其余水化学参数大(浓度增幅分别为257%、273%、286%、750%、93%)。大量污水的注入亦导致了地下水中SpC上升,DO下降,水体净化能力变差,水体更容易遭受污染。根据人类活动对岩溶地下水的影响以及其理化指标演变特征建立了相应的概念模型。研究综合表明了水房泉流域地下水对强烈的人类活动响应极其迅速、敏感,易遭受污染。     

Viruses in wastewaters

Viruses of animals, plants, and bacteria abound in sewage and receiving waters. Their ecological impact has, for the most part, gone unheeded except as it relates to viruses from human sources. Viruses present at levels infective to man have been recovered from waters used for recreational or drinking purposes. Their presence in a water environment virtually always denotes prior contamination by domestic wastes. Neither conventional sewage treatment processes nor the discharge to land or water of sludges produced by these processes achieve full viral control. Many environmental virologists advocate the setting of permissible virus limits for those recreational and potable waters dominated by wastewater effluents. The initiation of regulatory pressure to restrict virus discharges into these water environments has been instituted in Montgomery County, Maryland, and in the states of California and Arizona.     

Risk characterization and exposure assessment in arseniasis-endemic areas of Taiwan

This paper examines the age-specific human health risks exposed to inorganic arsenic through arsenic-contaminated farmed fish/shrimp and groundwater consumptions in arseniasis-endemic areas of blackfoot disease (BFD)-endemic area and Lanyang Plain in Taiwan, based on an probabilistic integrated risk assessment framework. We employ an age-dependent predictive physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model to account for arsenic concentrations in target organs. We reconstruct age-specific dose-response profiles for arsenicosis and arsenic-induced cancers by best fitting a pharmacodynamics-based three-parameter Hill equation model to published epidemiological data from West Bengal and Taiwan. The predicted median arsenic concentrations in age group-specific skin, lung, and bladder ranged from 2.24-5.70, 3.76-9.46, and 5.11-20.71 micro g g(-1) in BFD-endemic area, whereas 4.98-12.04, 8.23-19.92, and 11.07-43.45 micro g g(-1) in Lanyang Plain, respectively. Risk analysis indicates that consumption of arsenic-contaminated farmed fish/shrimp and groundwater in arseniasis-endemic areas may increase threat to prevalence of arsenicosis for all age groups, whereas adults may undergo potential risks of arsenic-induced skin, lung and bladder cancers. We show that peoples in Lanyang Plain are more readily associated with higher morbidities for arsenicosis and skin cancer as well as fatalities for lung and bladder cancers than that of peoples in BFD-endemic area. Here we report the first case in which theoretical human health risks for consuming As-contaminated farmed fish/shrimp and groundwater in the arseniasis-endemic areas are alarming under a conservative condition based on a probabilistic risk assessment framework.     

Application of enteric viruses for fecal pollution source tracking in environmental waters

Microbial source tracking (MST) tools are used to identify sources of fecal pollution for accurately assessing public health risk and implementing best management practices (BMPs). This review focuses on the potential of enteric viruses for MST applications. Following host infection, enteric viruses replicate and are excreted in high numbers in the hosts' feces and urine. Due to the specificity in host infection, enteric viruses have been considered one of the most accurate library-independent culture-independent MST tools. In an assessment of molecular viral assays based on sensitivity, specificity and the density of the target virus in fecal-impacted samples, human adenovirus and human polyomavirus were found to be the most promising human-specific viral markers. However, more research is needed to identify promising viral markers for livestock because of cross-reactions that were observed among livestock species or the limited number of samples tested for specificity. Other viral indicators of fecal origin, F+ RNA coliphage and pepper mild mottle virus, have also been proposed as potential targets for developing MST markers. Enhancing the utility of enteric viruses for MST applications through next generation sequencing (NGS) and virus concentration technology is discussed in the latter part of this review. The massive sequence databases generated by shotgun and gene-targeted metagenomics enable more efficient and reliable design of MST assays. Finally, recent studies revealed that alternative virus concentration methodologies may be more cost-effective than standard technologies such as 1MDS; however, improvements in the recovery efficiency and consistency are still needed. Overall, developments in metagenomic information combined with efficient concentration methodologies, as well as high host-specificity, make enteric viruses a promising tool in MST applications.     

Viruses on shellfish-growing waters

The conversion of the bivalve shellfish to a virus carriage status is the most important consequence of the virus pollution of shellfish-growing waters. Virus carriage has public health implications of significance for consumers of raw or inadequately cooked shellfish, as well as general biological implications of significance for shellfish themselves. The nonculturable human enteric viruses are responsible for most if not all of the illness transmitted by virus-carrying shellfish. Use of feces-associated natural virus in numbers comparable to those found in grossly polluted waters has been instrumental in developing new perspectives of virus carriage and its biological significance. The feasibility of developing a virus standard for virus surveillance of shellfish and its use for assessment of health risks which aris as a consequence of shellfish virus carriage is discussed.     

Assessment of persistent toxic substances in the environment of Egypt

The objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive assessment of the threats posed by persistent toxic substances (PTS) to the environment and human health in Egypt and to identify priorities, data gaps and recommendations for future intervention to control, reduce or eliminate releases of PTS. Data on available concentrations of persistent toxic substances in the different environmental compartments and their impacts on the ecosystem, and humans have been assembled and summarized. Despite extensive studies, most of the data available deal with limited studies or hot spot situations. Localized inputs of PTS have been identified from freshwater discharges in coastal areas (e.g., Nile estuaries and coastal lakes) and near sewage outfalls from highly industrialized and populated cities. Data are often missing for certain contaminants and in some compartments and geographical areas. The lack of standardized methodologies makes it difficult to compare and use existing data to provide exact conclusions on spatial and temporal trends. In spite of these restrictions, available data indicate that it is unlikely that present levels of cyclodiene pesticides would adversely affect marine organisms. Compounds which are proven to be of concern are DDT, PCBs, gamma-HCH, PAHs, HCB and organotin compounds. Other compounds are suspected to be ubiquitous but data are lacking. Based on few recent data, the reported levels of organochlorine pesticides in fish and human milk samples suggest a concentration decline during the 1990s consistent with the regulatory restrictions on the use of these compounds. It is essential to activate monitoring programs to fill data gaps in appropriate abiotic and biotic. Monitoring programs should be follow standard procedures and include improved QA/QC protocols.     

Nonylphenol in the environment: a critical review on occurrence, fate, toxicity and treatment in wastewaters

Nonylphenol is a toxic xenobiotic compound classified as an endocrine disrupter capable of interfering with the hormonal system of numerous organisms. It originates principally from the degradation of nonylphenol ethoxylates which are widely used as industrial surfactants. Nonylphenol ethoxylates reach sewage treatment works in substantial quantities where they biodegrade into several by-products including nonylphenol. Due to its physical-chemical characteristics, such as low solubility and high hydrophobicity, nonylphenol accumulates in environmental compartments that are characterised by high organic content, typically sewage sludge and river sediments, where it persists. The occurrence of nonylphenol in the environment is clearly correlated with anthropogenic activities such as wastewater treatment, landfilling and sewage sludge recycling. Nonylphenol is found often in matrices such as sewage sludge, effluents from sewage treatment works, river water and sediments, soil and groundwater. The impacts of nonylphenol in the environment include feminization of aquatic organisms, decrease in male fertility and the survival of juveniles at concentrations as low as 8.2 mug/l. Due to the harmful effects of the degradation products of nonylphenol ethoxylates in the environment, the use and production of such compounds have been banned in EU countries and strictly monitored in many other countries such as Canada and Japan. Although it has been shown that the concentration of nonylphenol in the environment is decreasing, it is still found at concentrations of 4.1 mug/l in river waters and 1 mg/kg in sediments. Nonylphenol has been referred to in the list of priority substances in the Water Frame Directive and in the 3rd draft Working Document on Sludge of the EU. Consequently there is currently a concern within some industries about the possibility of future regulations that may impose the removal of trace contaminants from contaminated effluents. The significance of upgrading sewage treatment works with advanced treatment technologies for removal of trace contaminants is discussed.     

亚高山旅游景区岩溶地下水水化学动态变化及其影响因素

岩溶地下水是岩溶区重要的水资源,因岩溶水文系统具有敏感性和脆弱性,其一旦遭受污染便很难再恢复。以重庆亚高山金佛山水房泉为例,通过计算2008年和2016年各水化学参数的浓度增降幅度和地球化学敏感性指数,对比分析各水化学参数及其地球化学敏感性变化特征。结果表明：水房泉水化学类型为Ca-HCO₃型,受水 岩作用控制。旅游活动产生的生活污水自2013年起被分成两条管道,住宿排污经过泉域内化粪池的沉淀降解后排入地下,使得2016年水房泉中K⁺、Na⁺、PO₄^3-浓度较2008年降低,显示化粪池对污染物具有有效的调节作用;而餐饮排污未经处理仍直接排入地下,导致流域出口水房泉中Cl^-、NO₃^-浓度呈翻倍增长,水质恶化。污水还加剧了碳酸盐岩的溶蚀,地下水中HCO₃^-、Ca²⁺、Mg²⁺浓度上升。由于旅游高峰期与非高峰期的游客量差距逐渐缩小,2016年各化学组分的敏感性指数多低于2008年,地下水受旅游活动影响的时间变长;分别对比不同水文年各主量组分的敏感性指数大小和离子当量浓度大小,发现2008年两者排序基本一致,而2016年较为混乱,这可能表明研究区地下水系统逐渐从有序转向无序的状态,稳定性被破坏,熵值增大。     

Assessing groundwater quality and its sustainability in Joypurhat district of Bangladesh using GIS and multivariate statistical approaches

Sustainable groundwater quality is a key global concern and has become a major issue of disquiets in most parts of the world including Bangladesh. Hence, the assessment of groundwater quality is an important study to ensure its sustainability for various uses. In this study, a combination of multivariate statistics, geographical information system (GIS) and geochemical approaches was employed to evaluate the groundwater quality and its sustainability in Joypurhat district of Bangladesh. The results showed that the groundwater samples are mainly Ca–Mg–HCO₃ type. Principal component analysis (PCA) results revealed that geogenic sources (rock weathering and cation exchange) followed by anthropogenic activities (domestic sewage and agro-chemicals) were the major factors governing the groundwater quality of the study area. Furthermore, the results of PCA are validated using the cluster analysis and correlation matrix analysis. Based on the groundwater quality index (GWQI), it is found that all the groundwater samples belong to excellent to good water quality domains for human consumption, although iron, fluoride and iodide contaminated to the groundwater, which do not pose any significant health hazard according to World Health Organization’s and Bangladesh’s guideline values. The results of irrigation water quality index including sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), permeability index and sodium percentage (Na %) suggested that most of the groundwater samples are good quality water for agricultural uses. The spatial distribution of the measured values of GWQI, SAR, Fe (iron), EC (electrical conductivity) and TH (total hardness) were spatially mapped using the GIS tool in the study area.     

A spatial multicriteria decision making tool to define the best agricultural areas for sewage sludge amendment

Sewage sludge amendment on agricultural soils has recently become a practice of heightened interest, as a consequence of sewage sludge production increase. This practice has benefits to soil and crops, however it may also lead to environmental contamination, depending on the characteristics of the fields. In order to define the suitability of the different agricultural fields to receive sewage sludge, a spatial tool is proposed. This tool, elaborated in GIS platform, aggregates different criteria regarding human exposure and environmental contamination.The spatial tool was applied to a case study in the region of Catalonia (NE of Spain). Within the case study, each step of the tool development is detailed. The results show that the studied region has different suitability degrees, being the appropriate areas sufficient for receiving the total amount of sewage sludge produced. The sensitivity analysis showed that “groundwater contamination”, “distance to urban areas”, “metals concentration in soil” and “crop type” are the most important criteria of the evaluation.The developed tool successfully tackled the problem, providing a comprehensive procedure to evaluate agricultural land suitability to receive sewage sludge as an organic fertilizer. Also, the tool implementation gives insights to decision makers, guiding them to more confident decisions, based on an extensive group of criteria.     

Viruses in wastewater aerosols

Agricultural land application of wastewater is becoming a widely used means of dealing with water scarcity and diminishing sources of unpolluted water. One of the most common forms of land application—sprinkler irrigation—poses an environmental problems in that it created wastewater aerosols. Air sampling experiments done at distances of up to 100 meters from wastewater irrigation sprinklers have detected several airborne enteroviruses: echovirus 1, 25, 29; poliovirus II, and coxsackie B1. The levels of airborne viruses found in wastewater aerosols may be potentially hazardous at any level. Since the impact of these findings on public health is not clear, epidemiological investigations by standard techniques should be conducted. It is estimated that the number of viruses isolated in environmental samples may be smaller by one or two orders of magnitude (90%–99%) than their actual number due to the limitations of virus recovery procedures. The unvailability of a reliable indicator microorganism which fulfills all the requirements for a biological indicator also makes it difficult to determine the virus level in the aerosols. Thus the scientific knowledge available today is insufficient to determine with certainty that no public health risk is created by wastewater aerosols. A comprehensive prospective study will, in all likelihood, provide answers to most questions and make it possible to assess more reliably the extent of the health risk due to wastewater aerosols.     

A Hierarchy of Groundwater Management, Land-Use, and Social Needs Integrated for Sustainable Resource Development

The pyramid of human needs developed by Abraham Maslow is based upon the presumption that until a person's lower level needs are fulfilled, higher level needs remain irrelevant. Groundwater and land-use management can likewise utilize such a hierarchy in integrating plans and operations with the needs of the society. Only once a region's population has fulfilled more basic concerns can higher-level groundwater and land-use management needs be effectively achieved. Attaining the ultimate goal of resource sustainability would certainly require considerable public backing, both for financial support and minimizing ambient pollution. For efficient water management to supply a society's water needs for future generations, sustainable groundwater management will require the full support of an educated society. The objective of the authors is to point out how essential it is to integrate operational strategies into regional hierarchies of needs applicable to groundwater management, land-use, and social planning. The situation of groundwater resources in Israel's Sharon Coastal aquifer region is taken as a case in point. Remedial groundwater activities have been undertaken in the management program for this aquifer. But it appears that maximal management efficiency cannot be achieved until the public's basic concerns are satisfactorily addressed and water resources planners reach consensus and a working partnership with the society in question. Operational measures must be clearly shown to benefit the region's population as regards their social, economic, and environmental concerns. This can only be achieved through public education, promoting awareness of the issuesbreak involved.     

Effects of earthworm activity on fertility and heavy metal bioavailability in sewage sludge

The potential for using earthworms (Eisenia fetida) to improve fertility and reduce copper and cadmium availability in sewage sludge was tested by laboratory incubation experiments. Results comparing sewage sludge with and without earthworm treatment showed that earthworm activity decreased the contents of organic matter, total nitrogen, but increased the contents of available nitrogen and phosphorus and had no significant effect on the contents of total phosphorus, total potassium and available potassium. After incubation of the sewage sludge with earthworms for 60 days, the contents of Cu and Cd in the earthworms increased with the increase of additional Cu up to 250 mg kg(-1) and Cd up to 10 mg kg(-1). Bioconcentration factors (BCF) were higher than 1 only for Cd when the addition rate was lower than 5 mg kg(-1), which indicates that the earthworms can only accumulate Cd when the concentration of Cd is low in sewage sludge. Bioavailability of Cd and Cu was evaluated by applying sewage sludge with and without earthworm treatment to soil and then growing cabbage plants. The results showed that earthworm treatment increased the biomass of cabbage and decreased the bioaccumulation of Cd and Cu in the cabbage plants.     

Degradation of volatile chlorinated aliphatic priority pollutants in groundwater

The known degradation products and degradative pathways involving selected volatile aliphatic chlorinated hydrocarbons in soil-groundwater systems are summarized. Current data indicate that the most commonly found products of microbial degradation of these compounds come from reductive dehalogenation, while nonmicrobial degradations tend to involve hydrolysis and/or oxidation. However, conclusions must be regarded as tentative, since most of the available studies have involved model systems and extrapolations, rather than direct studies of compounds in groundwater systems. Other potentially complicating factors, such as mobility and volatilization, are mentioned. Current knowledge is discussed in the context of data that would be desirable to obtain in future studies.     

荆州市浅层地下水环境质量综合评价与分区

通过实地调查荆州市浅层地下水环境,合理选择评价指标集（16项）,分别采用模糊数学综合评价法和F值法对该浅层地下水环境质量进行综合评价,分析对比两种方法的评价结果,对浅层地下水环境进行分区和污染分析。评价结果表明：浅层地下水环境质量不容乐观,整体状况较差。浅层地下水中主要超标组分为Fe、Mn、NO-3、NO-2、As、Ba等,对比分析荆州市2006~2011年主要超标组分的平均含量,可知6 a来,Fe、Mn、NO-2的平均含量均超过地下水Ⅲ类水质标准,NO-3、As、Ba的平均含量虽然均未超过地下水Ⅲ类水质标准,但其平均含量呈现随着年份递增的趋势。浅层地下水环境质量分区结果显示：严重区面积为2 623 km2约占305%,较严重面积为1 33128 km2约占1548%,合格区面积为3 07192 km2约占3572%,较好区面积为1 5738 km2仅占183%。浅层地下水环境质量在很大程度上不仅受当地特有的区域原生地质环境影响,还与人类活动有密切关系     

Quality of currently available methodology for monitoring viruses in the environment

A variety of methods have been proposed, developed, and evaluated for detecting viruses, especially human enteric viruses, in water, wastewater, and other environmental samples, and continued developments and improvements have led to simpler and more reliable methodology. However, the use of currently available methods is still limited primarily to special circumstances, such as investigation of waterborne disease outbreaks, research studies on virus reductions by water and wastewater treatment processes and systems, especially reuse systems, and research monitoring and surveying of natural and treated waters. Widespread and routine virus monitoring is still not possible due to technical limitations and deficiencies of present detection methods and their relatively high cost. Although continued development of new methods and further improvement of existing methods is desirable, it is perhaps more important that current methods be systematically evaluated in carefully designed collaborative (round-robin) studies and quality assurance tests. Until virus detection methods are further improved and systematically evaluated, the establishment of virus standards for such materials as water and edible shellfish requiring routine monitoring appears to be unjustified.     

Global gene expression and Ingenuity biological functions analysis on PCBs 153 and 138 induced human PBMC in vitro reveals differential mode(s) of action in developing toxicities

Several reports have indicated that low level of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) exposure can adversely affect a multitude of physiological disorders and diseases in in vitro, in vivo, and as reported in epidemiological studies. This investigation is focused on the possible contribution of two most prevalent PCB congeners in vitro in developing toxicities. We used PCBs 138 and 153 at the human equivalence level as model agents to test their specificity in developing toxicities. We chose a global approach using oligonucleotide microarray technology to investigate modulated gene expression for biological effects, upon exposure of PCBs, followed by Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA), to understand the underlying consequence in developing disease and disorders. We performed in vitro studies with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), where PBMC cells were exposed to respective PCBs for 48 h. Overall, our observation on gene expression indicated that PCB produces a unique signature affecting different pathways, specific for each congener. While analyzing these data through IPA, the prominent and interesting disease and disorders were neurological disease, cancer, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, as well as endocrine system disorders, genetic disorders, and reproductive system disease. They showed strong resemblances with in vitro, in vivo, and in the epidemiological studies. A distinct difference was observed in renal and urological diseases, organisimal injury and abnormalities, dental disease, ophthalmic disease, and psychological disorders, which are only revealed by PCB 138 exposure, but not in PCB 153. The present study emphasizes the challenges of global gene expression in vitro and was correlated with the results of exposed human population. The microarray results give a molecular mechanistic insight and functional effects, following PCB exposure. The extent of changes in genes related to several possible mode(s) of action highlights the changes in cellular functions and signaling pathways that play major roles. In addition to understanding the pathways related to mode of action for chemicals, these data could lead to the identification of genomic signatures that could be used for screening of chemicals for their potential to cause disease and developmental disorders.     

川中遂宁地区红层地下水水化学特征及主要离子来源分析

四川红层区居民用水主要为就近开采的地下水,水质参差不齐,研究红层地下水水文地球化学特征,对于宜井区选择,红层水源地用水安全具有重要意义。利用在遂宁船山区采集的70组浅层地下水水样,采用数理统计分析、离子比例关系等方法,分析了红层浅层地下水水化学特征及主要离子来源,研究得出:区内地下水中阴离子以HCO_3~-(164.00～571.91 mg·L~(-1))为主,其次是SO_4~(2-)(13.96～1 000.00 mg·L~(-1)),阳离子以Ca~(2+)(45.70～313.00 mg·L~(-1))为主,其中孔隙水的水化学类型主要为HCO_3,SO_4-Ca,SO_4-Mg型,裂隙水以HCO_3-Ca,Mg型与HCO_3-Ca型为主;地下水中离子成分主要由岩石风化产生,来源于地层中的方解石、白云石、石膏、芒硝等矿物的风化溶解,蒸发浓缩、地下水酸碱环境及人类活动对地下水成分造成了一定的影响;浅层地下水质量以Ⅲ～Ⅳ类为主,污染物主要为TDS、Fe~(3+)等原生污染,也存在NO_3~-、NO_2~-等人类活动污染;红层宜井区主要为平坝、丘坡坡脚及沟谷一带,为避免污染指标超标,井深不宜超过25m,远离养殖场、农厕等地下水易受人类活动污染的环境,防止鱼塘、农田等地表水进入井中。     

后寨河流域岩溶含水层脆弱性及其对土地利用方式的响应

由于强烈的溶蚀作用,岩溶地区溶蚀裂隙、管道等高度发育,并相互贯通,形成岩溶区特有的地下、地表“双层空间”结构体系,地下空间成为地下水存储和运移的重要场所。岩溶地区由于土层浅薄或缺失,并且溶蚀裂隙、管道、落水洞、竖井等高度发育,使含水层更易受地表状况的影响,土地利用/覆被变化在很大程度上影响着地下水的水质、水量,岩溶水质的变化能集中反映人类活动胁迫下岩溶含水层脆弱性程度的增加。以典型岩溶单元--贵州普定后寨河流域为例,分析了流域水文地质背景下的岩溶含水层本质脆弱性,结合流域地下河水近20年的水化学资料,分析了含水层脆弱性对土地利用变化的响应。结果显示：土地利用/覆被变化、农业活动、城镇建设及居民活动都对地下水质变化有明显影响。因此,调整土地利用结构,恢复岩溶植被,改善生态环境是保护和改善岩溶水资源的重要途径。