双积分政策下异质汽车制造商的产量博弈均衡

文章通过对双积分政策下汽车制造商的产量博弈均衡进行建模分析,研究了双积分政策对企业层面异质制造商的产量决策和利润的影响,以及对产业层面新能源汽车和燃油汽车总产量及总产值的影响。研究结果表明:(1)新能源汽车产业向均衡演进过程中,新能源汽车制造商仍具有一定的发展潜力,但未来发展的中坚力量依靠优势燃油汽车制造商,劣势燃油汽车制造商可能会通过提高燃油经济性发展为优势燃油汽车制造商,从而提高优势燃油汽车制造商的燃油汽车总产量,降低劣势燃油汽车制造商的燃油汽车总产量。(2)双积分政策参数对异质制造商产量决策和利润的影响不同:新能源汽车制造商能够从中受益,而劣势燃油汽车制造商面临危机,转危为安的可能方式包括降低平均燃料消耗量和积极探索新能源汽车生产的可能性。对于优势燃油汽车制造商来说,双积分政策的收紧可能导致其转向燃油汽车市场,规制NEV积分价格上限有利于引导优势燃油汽车制造商转向新能源汽车市场。(3)促进新能源汽车规模增长的参数,可能导致总产值下降,政策调整应将规模增长和产值增长作为双目标,避免单一目标可能导致的市场波动。(4)随着双积分政策的收紧,可预见的新能源汽车积分比例要求提高以及平均燃料消耗量标准趋严,将刺激新能源汽车积分需求提升,缓解新能源汽车积分供需失衡问题。考虑到目前NEV积分价格处于低位,合理降低新能源乘用车车型积分有助于限制NEV积分供给。     

Spatio-temporal modelling of electric vehicle charging demand and impacts on peak household electrical load

This paper presents a composite methodology for obtaining spatial and temporal projections of charging demand and peak-shaving potential from plug-in electric vehicles (EVs), and the associated spatio-temporal impacts on peak household electrical load. The methodology comprises a suite of models of future EV uptake, travel by households, household electricity demand and recharge/discharge of EVs at their home locations. The analysis is disaggregated to hourly time-steps over a full year, and spatially to mesh blocks comprising around 250 houses per block. The modelling suite is applied to an analysis of peak household load impacts across the state of Victoria, Australia, under nine different combinations of EV uptake and charging/discharging behaviour. The projected increase in peak household electrical loads under expected penetration rates and charging demands is less than 10 % on most high-demand days, but can be up to 15 % on a handful of days and geographic locations. Peak-load impacts under off-peak charging are mostly less than 5 %. With judicious EV discharging strategies, there is potential to shave peak loads on the highest demand days by up to 5 %.     

Electric vehicles: solution or new problem?

Since electric vehicles (EVs) have been recognized as a technology that reduces local air pollution while improving transport energy security, they have been promoted in many countries. Yet, mainly due to their high costs, especially in the case of pure battery electric vehicles, and a lack of proper infrastructure, the use of EVs is still very limited. In this paper, some of the major barriers and the future challenges are discussed. The current problems are mainly attributed to two categories: (1) the battery performances and costs, as well as battery production including issue of material availability and (2) environmental benefits of EVs depending on the sources used for the electricity generation and their carbon intensity. The major conclusions are that (1) research and development with respect to batteries has by far the highest priority and (2) it has to be ensured that the electricity used in EVs is generated largely from renewable energy sources.     

Exploitation of renewable energy resources for environment‐friendly sustainable development in Saudi Arabia

The recent increase in energy costs, driven by a surge in oil prices, has increased world‐wide efforts on the exploitation of renewable/wind energy resources for environment‐friendly sustainable development and to mitigate future energy challenges. Moreover, experience in the wind energy industry has reached high levels in the field of manufacturing and application. This inevitably increases the merits of wind energy exploitation. In order to exploit wind resources, through the establishment of wind power plants, specific attention must be focused on the characteristics of wind and wind machines. The literature indicates that wind‐energy resources are relatively better along coastlines. In the present study, long‐term hourly mean wind speed data for the period 1986–2003, recorded at Dhahran (Eastern Coastal region, Saudi Arabia), has been analysed to examine the wind characteristics including (but not limited to): yearly/monthly/diurnal variations of wind speed, frequency distribution of wind speed, impact of hub‐height/machine‐size on energy production, etc. Data have been checked/validated for completeness. Data analysis indicated that long‐term monthly average wind speeds ranged from 3.8 to 5.8 m/s.

Concurrently, the study determined monthly average daily energy generation from different sizes of commercial wind machines (150, 250, 600 kW, etc.) to assess the impact of wind machine size on energy yield. The study also estimated annual energy production (MWh/year) from wind farms of different capacities (3, 6, 12, 24 MW, etc.) by utilising different commercial wind energy conversion systems (WECS). It was observed that, for a given 6 MW wind farm size, a cluster of 150 kW wind machines (at 50 m hub‐height) yielded about 32% more energy when compared to a cluster of 600 kW wind machines. The study also estimated the cost of wind‐based electricity (COE, US$/kWh) by using different capacities of commercial WECS. It was found that the COE per kWh is 0.045 US$/kWh for 150 kW wind machine (at 50 m hub‐height) whereas COE was 0.039 US$/kWh for 600 kW wind machine (at 50 m hub‐height). The study also dealt with wind turbine characteristics (such as capacity factor and availability factor). These characteristics are important indicators of wind turbine performance evaluation.     

Contribution of the sugar cane industry to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the energy sector: the case of Mauritius

The aim of this paper was to present the contribution of the sugar cane industry to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the energy sector. Mauritius is taken as a case study. Sugar cane was introduced in Mauritius during the seventeenth century and production of sugar started around 60 years later. Since then, the cane industry has been one of the economic pillars of the country. Bagasse, a by-product of sugar cane, is used as fuel in cogeneration power plants to produce process heat and electricity. This process heat and the generated electricity are used by an annexed sugar mills for the production of sugar, while the remaining electricity is exported to the national grid. In fact, Mauritius is a pioneer in the field of bagasse-based cogeneration power plant; the first bagasse-based cogeneration power plant that was commissioned in the world was in Mauritius in 1957. The contribution of the cane industry in the electricity sector has been vital for the economic development of Mauritius and also in terms of mitigating carbon dioxide emissions by displacing fossil fuels in electricity generation, as bagasse is classified as a renewable source. Data obtained from Statistics Mauritius on electricity production for the past 45 years were analysed, and carbon dioxide emissions were calculated based on international norms. It is estimated that savings on heavy fuel oil importation were by 1.5 million tons of oil—representing a value of 2.9 billion dollars—thus avoiding 4.5 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions. This figure can be further increased if molasses, a by-product of sugar cane juice, is used to produce bio-ethanol to be used as fuel in vehicles.     

Policy innovation for technology diffusion: a case-study of Japanese renewable energy public support programs

Due to local scarcity of fossil fuel reserves, deployment of renewable energy has been on the Japanese government energy policy agenda for decades. While a significant amount of government budget was being allocated to renewables Research and Development, in contrast very little attention was paid to public support for renewable energy deployment. Against this background, in 2003, the Japanese government enacted legislation based on the renewable portfolio standard (RPS) scheme, which requires electricity retailers to supply a certain amount of electricity from renewable sources to grid consumers. The RPS legislation had been expected to ensure market efficiency, as well as bringing a steady increase in renewable capacity. Later, in 2009, the feed-in tariff (FIT) scheme was introduced to let electricity utilities purchase electricity generated from renewable energy sources with regulated prices. This paper aims to use the choice of renewable policy as a case-study to understand barriers for policy transfer and innovation, mainly through comparative studies between RPS and FIT in Japan. The result of this study shows that, in Japan, most policy-makers face the ‘lock-in’ of existing technology, which frustrates the deployment of renewable energy. For this reason, there is reluctance to allow experimentation that could promote a shift to other energy sources. In order to achieve the rapid change towards green industry, innovation policy needs to be implemented through effective and efficient methods, such as a carbon tax for fossil fuels; enlargement of renewable energy deployment to sources such as wind, geothermal and solar; and conducting further studies toward public preference and willingness to pay for the new clean energy sources.     

Economic feasibility of autonomous hybrid wind–diesel power systems for residential loads in hot regions: a step to mitigate the implications of fossil fuel depletion

Today, energy occupies a pivotal position around which all socio-economic activities revolve. No energy means no life, and supply of energy in a cheap, plentiful, long-sustainable and environmentally safe form is a boon for everyone. In the light of rising cost of oil and fears of its exhaustion coupled with increased pollution, the governments worldwide are deliberating and making huge strides to promote renewable energy sources such as wind. Integration of wind machines with the diesel plants is pursued widely to reduce dependence on fossil-fuel-produced energy and to reduce the release of carbon gases that cause global climate change. The literature indicates that commercial/residential buildings in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) consume an estimated 10–40% of the total electric energy generated. The aim of this study is to analyse wind-speed data of Dhahran (East-Coast, KSA) to assess the economic feasibility of utilising autonomous hybrid wind–diesel power systems to meet the electrical load of 100 typical residential buildings (with annual electrical energy demand of 3512 MWh). The monthly average wind speeds range from 3.3 to 5.6 m/s. The hybrid systems simulated consist of different combinations of 600 kW commercial wind machines supplemented with diesel generators. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory's hybrid optimisation model for electric renewables software was employed to perform the techno-economic analysis.

The simulation results indicate that for a hybrid system comprising 600 kW wind capacity together with a 1.0 MW diesel system (two 500 kW units), the wind penetration (at 50 m hub-height, with 0% annual capacity shortage) is 26%. The cost of generating energy (COE, $/kWh) from this hybrid wind–diesel system was found to be 0.070 $/kWh (assuming diesel fuel price of 0.1 $/l). The study exhibits that for a given hybrid configuration, the number of operational hours of diesel generator sets (gensets) decreases with an increase in the wind-farm capacity. Concurrently, emphasis has also been placed on wind penetration, un-met load, effect of hub-height on energy production and COE, excess electricity generation, percentage fuel savings and reduction in carbon emissions (relative to diesel-only situation) of different hybrid systems, cost breakdown of wind–diesel systems, COE of different hybrid systems, etc.     

A survey of cyclic and linear siloxanes in indoor dust and their implications for human exposures in twelve countries

Siloxanes are used widely in a variety of consumer products, including cosmetics, personal care products, medical and electrical devices, cookware, and building materials. Nevertheless, little is known on the occurrence of siloxanes in indoor dust. In this survey, five cyclic (D3–D7) and 11 linear (L4–L14) siloxanes were determined in 310 indoor dust samples collected from 12 countries. Dust samples collected from Greece contained the highest concentrations of total cyclic siloxanes (TCSi), ranging from 118 to 25,100 ng/g (median: 1380), and total linear siloxanes (TLSi), ranging from 129 to 4990 ng/g (median: 772). The median total siloxane (TSi) concentrations in dust samples from 12 countries were in the following decreasing order: Greece (2970 ng/g), Kuwait (2400), South Korea (1810), Japan (1500), the USA (1220), China (1070), Romania (538), Colombia (230), Vietnam (206), Saudi Arabia (132), India (116), and Pakistan (68.3). TLSi concentrations as high as 42,800 ng/g (Kuwait) and TCSi concentrations as high as 25,000 ng/g (Greece) were found in indoor dust samples. Among the 16 siloxanes determined, decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5) was found at the highest concentration in dust samples from all countries, except for Japan and South Korea, with a predominance of L11; Kuwait, with L10; and Pakistan and Romania, with L12. The composition profiles of 16 siloxanes in dust samples varied by country. TCSi accounted for a major proportion of TSi concentrations in dust collected from Colombia (90%), India (80%) and Saudi Arabia (70%), whereas TLSi predominated in samples collected from Japan (89%), Kuwait (85%), and South Korea (78%). Based on the measured median TSi concentrations in indoor dust, we estimated human exposure doses through indoor dust ingestion for various age groups. The exposure doses ranged from 0.27 to 11.9 ng/kg-bw/d for toddlers and 0.06 to 2.48 ng/kg-bw/d for adults.     

Resources and international climate change policy gridlock

Few other policy zones are as complex as the issue of climate change. If the more pessimistic projections of climate change doom are correct, then the failure to address the issue is likely to be catastrophic and irreversible. The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change has predicted the potential extinction of many species and that the existence of small-island and other vulnerable countries will be threatened if business-as-usual greenhouse gas emissions continue. Climate change is a transboundary problem and requires unprecedented levels of cooperation between states and serious and sustained responses from major emitters. However, the growing demand and consumption of natural resources for continued energy security and cornucopian economic growth have undermined the outcomes of international climate change negotiations. It is argued here that there is a strong connection between the major emitters’ positions at United Nations’ climate talks, their possessions, dependence and consumption of natural resources, and the continued undermining of international climate change policy for unsustainable growth. This paper assesses the resource politics of the US, China, India, Canada, Russia, and Saudi Arabia and their positions at climate talks to show the link between lack of climate change policy progress and the positions of these main players.     

基于混合生命周期方法的私人电动汽车温室气体排放研究

近年来,电动汽车因其在行驶过程中无任何尾气排放,被各国政府视为推动交通部门清洁、低碳发展的重要途径,主要发达国家纷纷推出了各自的电动汽车发展战略。但是,由于电力属于二次能源,其上游电力生产阶段的能源消费是否清洁将对电动汽车的减排效果产生重要影响。考虑到目前中国绝大部分电力源于煤炭,电动汽车是否真正有益于减排还有待进一步验证。目前一些专家和学者基于传统的过程生命周期评价方法对电动汽车的能源消费、温室气体排放做了一些研究,但研究结果差异较大。为了对电动汽车的减排效果进行更精确的研究,本文采用混合生命周期方法对电动汽车的能源消费、温室气体排放进行了计算。同时,在考虑电动汽车的燃料生命周期、车辆制造生命周期的基础上,将相关配套充电设施建设生命周期纳入到电动汽车的全生命周期系统边界内,以使对电动汽车全生命周期的研究结果更加完整、精确。研究结果显示,纯电动汽车并非是"零排放"的,在燃料周期,虽然纯电动汽车的单位里程能源消费强度较小,约为传统汽油车的94.6%,但以煤为主的高碳电力结构导致目前纯电动汽车燃料周期的单位里程温室气体排放强度约为传统汽油车的1.12倍;车辆周期内,纯电动汽车的能源消费和温室气体排放量也略高于传统汽油车;此外,配套充电设施的建设也将增加纯电动汽车全生命周期的能源消费和温室气体排放量。综合燃料、车辆及充电设备的全生命周期,在当前的电源结构及技术条件下,电动汽车虽然具有较高的能源效率和较好的石油替代效果,但其全生命周期内的煤炭消费较高,导致其温室气体排放量高于传统汽油车,在当前的情况下大规模发展电动汽车并不利于温室气体减排。     

Performance evaluation of solar photovoltaic electricity-generating systems: an Indian perspective

The present work seeks to assess the sustainability of different solar photovoltaic (SPV) electricity-generating systems based upon energy, environment and economics. The sustainability indicators evaluated for energy, environment and economics are electrical output, life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and life-cycle cost of electricity generated per kilowatt hour. The selected SPV-based electricity generation technologies for sustainability evaluation are amorphous, monocrystalline and polycrystalline at different locations and tilt angles across India. For SPV systems, most of the emissions are the result of electricity use during manufacturing. In these cases, an average grid mix for the region of manufacture is typically used to calculate energy use and emissions. Based upon these three indicators, a figure of merit (FM) has been proposed. The results proposed that polycrystalline gives the maximum electrical output, minimum GHG emission, minimum cost and maximum FM at a radiation level of 6 kWh/m²/day with latitude and tilt angle of 34° and 35°, respectively. This work will be helpful to users of solar energy, academicians, researchers and other concerned persons, in understanding the importance, severity and benefits obtained by the application and implementation of the SPV electricity-generating systems.     

新能源汽车补贴政策工具挖掘及量化评价

现阶段中国大力开展新能源汽车示范推广工作,中央及各地方政府已相继出台一系列补贴政策。在严厉打击新能源汽车"骗补"及补贴政策重新调整等背景下,分析梳理现有政策从而对其进行整体把握与正确判断显得尤为重要,从而为政策改进与优化做准备。本文选取了截至2016年底国家和北京市颁布的涉及新能源汽车补贴的相关政策。首先,从采用文本挖掘的方法整理出的政策文本的高频有效关键词从中提炼出的政策工具,可分为供给型、需求型、环境型三类,分别从技术推动、市场拉动和环境支撑三个方面促进和规范新能源汽车市场。发现现有政策工具仍存在一些问题,如缺乏支持新能源汽车技术提升和产品开发的供给型政策工具;环境型政策工具的作用重点欠科学,对充电基础设施建设的重视程度不够;补贴过于聚焦新能源汽车购买环节等。其次,结合政策特点运用PMC指数模型构建了新能源汽车补贴政策的量化评价框架,通过变量分类、参数识别建立了多投入产出表,并通过PMC指数的测量、PMC曲面的生成综合反映政策各维度的情况。再次,采用实证分析的方法,选取3项新能源汽车补贴政策(P1、P2、P3)为研究对象,对政策进行量化评价。结果得出3项政策的PMC指数分别为7.52、6.95、6.21,均在良好的等级之内,P1政策的量化结果为优秀,P2、P3政策结果为良好,且具有较大的提升空间,可考虑在激励措施等方面予以加强。最后,根据新能源汽车补贴政策无法取得预期效果的原因,提出三点政策优化意见:(1)重视供给型政策工具的使用,加大新能源汽车科研资金投入;(2)环境型政策工具的作用重点应放在充电等基础设施的建设上;(3)需求型可考虑采取以公共交通带动私人交通的策略。     

调整工业结构发展三峡低碳经济——以湖北省宜昌市为例

运用熵值法研究了宜昌市工业结构调整与低碳经济之间的关系。研究表明：宜昌市电力、热力生产和供应业的节能减排指数排名首位,属于可再生清洁能源,应大力推进其发展;食品产业的节能减排指数排名较前,属于第二梯队产业,也是朝阳产业,应得到有效支持促进其健康发展;装备制造业的节能减排指数排名大部分位列前10位,属于第三梯队产业,是传统支柱产业和工业中坚力量,在进行低碳技术创新的前提下,应得到有效的支持和发展;宜昌市的高新技术产业和纺织等轻工业的节能减排指数排名也比较靠前,应加大对高新技术产业和轻工业的扶持力度,增强其竞争能力;宜昌市化工业的节能减排指数排名靠后,对其应采用产业调整和技术创新相结合的手段;宜昌市石油加工、炼焦及核燃料加工业,造纸业和金属冶炼业的节能减排指数最低,排名最后,应对其实施调整归并政策,逐步减少其企业数量和规模     

Identifying and modeling key trade-offs between hydrogen fuel cell and electric vehicles

Through a sensitivity analysis, the trade-off between vehicle range and CO₂ emissions is investigated as a function of electric emissions coefficient. Various powertrains were analysed for use in a small crossover sport utility vehicle. Gasoline, gasoline electric hybrid, diesel, fuel cell and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) were considered. Using various upstream fuel pathways and a model for vehicle performance, emissions and energy use were estimated. The hydrogen fuel cell vehicle was found preferable to BEVs under conditions of high CO₂ emissions per kW-hr and a high vehicle range requirement. The BEV was preferable for all other conditions.     

Viability of solar photovoltaics as an electricity generation source for Jordan

Viability of solar photovoltaics as an electricity generation source for Jordan was assessed utilising a proposed 5 MW grid‐connected solar photovoltaic power plant. Long‐term (1994–2003) monthly average daily global solar radiation and sunshine duration data for 24 locations – distributed all over the country – were studied and analysed to assess the distribution of radiation and sunshine duration over Jordan, and formed an input to the RetScreen Software for evaluation and analysis of the proposed plant's electricity production and economic feasibility. It was found that depending on the geographical location, the global solar radiation on horizontal surface varied between 1.51 and 2.46 MWh/m²/year with an overall mean value of 2.01 MWh/m²/year for Jordan. The sunshine duration was found to vary, according to the location, between 8.47 and 9.68 hours/day, with a mean value of 9.07 hours/day and about 3311 sunshine hours annually for Jordan. The annual electricity production of the proposed plant varied depending on the location between 6.886 and 11.919 GWh/year, with a mean value of 9.46 GWh/year. The specific yield varied between 340.9 and 196.9 kWh/m², while the mean value was 270.59 kWh/m². Analysis of the annual electricity production of the plant, the specific yield, besides the economic indicators, i.e. internal rate of return, simple payback period, years to positive cash flow, net present value, annual life cycle saving, benefit/cost ratio, and cost of energy – for all sites – showed that Tafila and Karak are the most suitable sites for the solar photovoltaic power plant's development and Wadi Yabis is the worst. The results also showed that an average of 7414.9 tons of greenhouse gases can be avoided annually utilising the proposed plant for electricity generation at any part of Jordan.     

Environmental taxation for reducing greenhouse gases emissions in Chile: an input–output analysis

This study uses an environmental extension of the Leontief price model to analyse various tax rates on the carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions that are generated by the most polluting sectors of the Chilean economy. By using this methodology, it is possible to obtain a counterfactual scenario for the prices, levels of production and emissions of each economic sector, as well as, for tax collection, consumer spending and the consumer price index. This analysis is important because Chile is internationally committed to reducing its emissions by 30% by 2030. According to the results, to meet the target CO₂ emissions only using tax policies, tax should be approximately 20 times higher than their current levels in the electricity sector. Alternatively, a lower tax of US $30/ton of CO₂ and other GHGs applied to all sectors of the economy could reduce CO₂ and other GHGs emissions by up to 25.7% with less of a negative impact on the economy.     

Metamodelling-based Product Family Design of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Development of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) is stimulated by the need to replace non-renewable energies with sustainable and more environment-friendly new energy types. PHEVs benefit from a combination of an internal combustion engine and an electric motor with a rechargeable and larger battery pack than conventional hybrid vehicles. In order to maximise customer satisfaction and motivate replacement of the conventional vehicles with this new technology, the design of PHEVs requires sufficient differentiation in the product specifications for diverse market segments. The added set-up time, processes, costs and longer lead time for designing and manufacturing a diverse range of such vehicles is a hurdle towards increasing their diversity. This study proposes an efficient product family design (PFD) method for mass customisation of the PHEV powertrains. The methodology is less dependent on expensive simulations due to use of metamodelling and non-conventional sensitivity analysis. The PFD concept and its implications to a family of five PHEVs are investigated, and benefits as well as limitations of a sustainable development for this complex product are discussed.     

Energy intensities and the impact of high energy prices on producing and consuming sectors in Malaysia

The increase in oil prices has put pressure on the global economy. Even economies that have a high degree of self-sufficiency concerning oil products are experiencing rising production costs and price increases for households energy use. Therefore, changes in energy policies are under consideration for countries highly dependent on imported energy as well as countries with a high degree of self-sufficiency. Examination of dependence on cheap energy sources for economic growth in different economic sectors is becoming more important as countries are trying to promote activities that are less energy intense. Among the policy changes under consideration, the adjustment of domestic energy subsidies is of particular interest. The effect of high energy prices on a fast growing economy, such as in Malaysia, is considerable, as the country will shift from being a net exporter of energy to a net importer in less than 10 years. Malaysia until recently has experienced increasing overall energy intensity and the growth up to 2,000 was quite high, especially for electricity intensity. A continued rise in energy intensity will be quite problematic in this new high oil price regime. This paper investigates the impact of rising energy prices on production costs for the different sectors of the Malaysian economy. Input–output (I–O) calculations demonstrate that the impact on the exporting component of the manufacturing sectors is less than for the average production. Therefore the production cost increase caused by, for example, an adjustment in electricity prices of 25% will result in less than 1/2% increase. As the competing countries in world markets are experiencing the same rise in energy costs, including electricity based on fossil fuels, there is no vital argument for not allowing domestic energy prices to adjust to the international price changes.

Polychlorinated biphenyls in ambient air of NW Greece and in particulate emissions

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) bound to total suspended particles (TSP) were determined in the area of Eordea basin, NW Greece, where intensive coal burning for electricity production takes place. The concentrations of PCBs exhibited high variability although within the range reported for urban industrialized areas. The presence of PCBs in fly ash generated from coal burning as well as in particulate emissions from vehicles, domestic heating, burning of refuses and biomass was also examined. The particles emitted from vehicles and central heating exhibited the higher content of PCBs, whereas fly ash the lower. The pattern of PCBs in TSP as well as in particulate emissions was discussed.     

Energy analysis of algae-to-biofuel production chains integrated with a combined heat and power plant

ABSTRACT

This study examines the energy and mass balances of algae cultivation and different post-processing pathways. Flue gases and excess heat from a combined heat and power (CHP) plant are used in algae cultivation, with nutrients from municipal wastewater. In the studied pathways, algae are cultivated in open ponds and photobioreactors with or without artificial lighting. Algal mass is used for methane, biodiesel or ethanol production, or it is combusted in a boiler. Results show that in most process pathways energy output exceeds the energy consumption in processing, and the energy returns are approximately twice as large as the electricity input. A large fraction of input energy is low-temperature heat, while the products have a higher value. Energy outputs from different pathways are similar, but heat and electricity consumption in processing vary significantly. Supercritical water gasification pathway is identified as a possible future option, whereas lipid extraction pathways are suggested to be the most likely candidates for industrial scale operations.